CHAPTER 1

BIOGRAPHY

1.1. In 1955, on the occasion of the centenary of the death of Antonio Rosmini, the President of the Italian Republic described him as "one of the most original and significant thinkers that Italy and Europe produced in the nineteenth century The publication of the National Edition of the Works of Antonio Rosmini contributed to a better understanding of Rosmini, philosopher and patriot.

1 .2. Antonio Rosmini-Serbati(1) was born in the north Italian town of Rovereto(2) on 24 March 1797, into a long established family of modest wealth. There were four children: Margherita was the eldest; Antonio came next and then his brother Giuseppe; the youngest died in infancy. Rosmini learned to read and write at home and later attended the local schools in the town (1804-1814). He studied at home for the next two years under the direction of Pietro Orsi, Prefect of the ginnasio at Roverto who introduced him to philosophy. He continued the study of philosophy and mathematics, passing his examinations with distinction, at the Imperial Lyceum in Trent 1816. His first writings, of the period 1812-1816, most of which are still in manuscript, cover a wide range of subjects; some are sketches, some consist of a few pages and others are more substantial.

1.3. During the year 1815-1816 two of the most important events in Rosmini's life took place; the discovery of his philosophical principle concerning the idea of being, (which will be looked at in more detail in Chapter 3) and his decision to become a priest. Having overcome the opposition of his parents he began his five year course of theological studies at the University of Padua. He was studious by nature and possessed an exceptional capacity for work: both his reading and his interests were wide-ranging, as his output of books and letters shows. Tommaseo(3) points to the many and varied interests of his student companion; he says that Rosmini was keenly interested in the field of art. He held debates on metaphysics:

His father died in 1820, while Rosmini was engaged in priestly studies, making him the heir to the estate. Having made provision for his mother and the rest of his family, he entrusted the management of the estate to his cousin. Later, he devoted the wealth which he had inherited to various charitable works which he set up. Rosmini was ordained priest in 1821. It was at this time that he came into contact with the Maschesa di Canossa, foundress of the Daughters of Charity, who urged him to found a society for men similar to her own: this led in time to the founding of the Institute of Charity. In 1822 he took his Doctor's degree at Padua in Sacred Theology and Canon Law. From then until 1826 he spent the greater part of his time in Rovereto. In 1823 he paid his first visit to Rome accompanying the Patriarch of Venice; through this he made many new friends and acquaintances. Pius VII, on learning that Rosmini was a keen student of philosophy, suggested that he should devote his life to it; he also offered to make him Auditor of the Rota, a post which would have led to quick promotion in the Curia, but Rosmini declined. In the same year Pius VII died and at the invitation of the clergy of Rosmini's native town, Rosmini preached the panegyric(4) in San Marco. The panegyric received a varied reception because of the political and ecclesiastical antagonisms it aroused: it shows the relationship between Church and State and reveals a loyalty to the Holy See coupled with a desire to see it free from the clutches of the Emperor. This attitude led to Rosmini's being labelled a "papalist" in the eyes of the Austrian authorities and from this time onwards he was regarded as in league with high-ranking prelates in Rome. Therefore he was a marked man in Austrian eyes. He also wrote his first work on Christian education, for his sister who had opened an orphanage; this was published in 1823 as Della Educazione Cristiana.(5)

1.4 In 1826 he went to Milan, where among other well-known people he met Conte Giacomo Mellerio who was to be his benefactor all through his life. He also made the acquaintance of Manzoni(6) who became his life-long friend; and he was introduced to Abbé Jean Löewenbruck a Frenchman from Lorraine, who was to play an important part in founding the Institute of Charity. During this year Rosmini published his main work on education, Sulll'Unità(7) to which we shall return in chapter 3. The following year he went to Domodossola in northern Italy; in 1828, while still at Calvario(8), he wrote the Constitutions of the Institute of Charity (the order which he had founded). He also composed a large part of his major work. the Nuovo Saggio(9), which established his reputation as a philosopher; it was published in 1830 in Rome, because it was his wish that Christian philosophy should emanate from the centre of the Christian world. His time from now onwards was divided between the affairs of the Institute of Charity and the Congregation of the Sisters of Providence(10); his studies and writings on many subjects from theology to politics, including a vast correspondence(11), and for a brief period his reluctant entry into politics.

1.5 From 1831, Rosmini had a particular interest in England; the country had always been a source of interest to him, not only from a historical and political viewpoint but also because of the Catholic religious awakening during the 1830's. A certain Luigi Gentili(12), a Roman lawyer had been invited by Mgr Baines, Vicar Apostolic of the Western District in England, to come to Prior Park in Bath. (Gentili, a little earlier had asked Rosmini to accept him into the small group of men who were the nucleus of the future Institute of Charity). The Rector of the Irish College in Rome had also been asked by Ambrose Phillips de Lisle(13) of Leicestershire to find a missioner; Gentili was, at this time preparing to enter the Institute of Charity. After a year's novitiate, Rosmini sent Gentili and two other men to begin a mission at Prior Park. (1835) In due course other members of the Institute joined the English mission, so that the seminary came eventually under the direction of the Rosminians. Phillips had founded missions at Grace-Dieu and Whitwick in Leicestershire and wanted missionaries; Gentili moved from Bath to the Midlands. A new house awaited the missionaries at Loughborough (1840), handed over to Rosmini by Phillips. Gentili was given the task of building a college at Ratcliffe, in the vicinity(14).

He became a preacher in much demand, giving missions in England, Ireland and Wales. Eventually schools and colleges were set up in these countries, and the Rosminian Sisters, Fathers and Brothers continue this work of education today. There are also parish establishments sprinkled throughout these and other countries. From 1830 to 1834 Rosmini lived sometimes at Domodossola and sometimes at Trent. Some of his writing of this period will be mentioned elsewhere: suffice it to mention here that he was at this time, producing a substantial work on moral science(15).

1.6 At the request of the Bishop of Trent, together with the authorities of Rovereto, he became parish priest of San Marco (Rovereto). But he was hampered in his efforts to improve the moral and spiritual welfare of his parishioners by the opposition of the Austrian Government, which disapproved of his attitude to the Holy See, as was shown earlier (p.6). Having had their attention drawn to him, the Austrians began to look with suspicion on his efforts generally - so much so, that all communication between the house at Trent and other houses of the Order was forbidden. Between 1836 and 1837 Rosmini moved from place to place and then settled in Stresa in northern Italy, which became his home for the rest of his life. While there were houses of the Institute of Charity in Austria, there would be a problem over approval by the Holy See since Imperial permission would be necessary; he therefore resigned his charge at Rovereto. In spite of this opposition and the objections raised by the Holy See particularly against the form of poverty(16) proposed by Rosmini, the Institute of Charity was solemnly approved in 1839 by Gregory XVI. Rosmini's writings of this period (1834-1837) cover a wide range of subjects. Mention must be made of further writing on moral science: his Antropologia(17), a work on philosophy(18), and his Catechismo(19). He also began a work on education for a lady at Stresa who ran an elementary school which was given to the Institute later. His aim was to give a complete treatise on method(20) rather than a manual for elementary school-teachers; it was published posthumously in 1857.

1.7 After the publication of Trattato della Coscienza(21) in 1839 there began a campaign against Rosmini, intensified by the influence of certain Jesuits. Leetham (1957) describes the "spate of accusations" from which Rosmini's name was never allowed to recover, even though his works were examined by the Holy See and later allowed to be taught. Rosmini was accused of attacking (in the above mentioned work) the moral theology of St Alphonsus and of making new distinctions between sin and guilt in his explanation of original sin. It has to be borne in mind that in the Italy of Rosmini's time, there existed a readiness within the Church to track down anything that could be construed at unorthodox teaching or anyone with original ideas. Rumours spread, followed by anonymous pamphlets which stated that he was unsound in doctrine. A controversy arose, made more urgent by a certain writer, who under the pseudonym of Eusebio Cristiano, had a pamphlet(22) secretly printed in Rome, Genoa, Lucca and Turin in 1841. It accused Rosmini not only of putting forward debatable opinions in theology and philosophy but also of grave errors and heresies. Rosmini published a reply(23) to the so-called Cristiano making it clear that he sought no revenge, but merely to defend himself and the teaching of the Church. Other trials followed and rumours spread to England; his adversaries did all in their power to put him in disfavour with Gregory XVI. But the Pope called a commission and enjoined a Decree of Silence(24) on Rosmini and his opponents (1843), thus bringing the first phase of the controversy to an end. His writings of this period (1838-1846) include his work on the philosophy of rights(25) in which he points out the danger of national egoism, something he considers more dangerous than the selfishness of small groups; his Teodicea(26), one of his greatest works, and a work on Providence (1826)(27) . He was able to vindicate his philosophy from various attacks including that of Vincenzo Gioberti, Italian patriot and philosopher, to be mentioned later. His reply(28) to Gioberti appeared when Italy was struggling to free herself from the control of Austria. Rosmini was eager to see the country delivered from bondage and unified. It was because of this hope that he became interested and involved in political events.

1.8 In studying Rosmini against his background, it has to be borne in mind that he lived at a time when the influence of the Encyclopedists was dominant(29), when the kingdom of man, under the umbrella of science and liberty, seemed to reign independently of the ideal held by Christians for eighteen centuries, the ideal of the kingdom of God. It was at this time, when man's seeming independence from God reached its highest point, that Rosmini gave witness to God; his writings provoked enmity among anti-Christian philosophers who attacked him through his works(30); Rosmini however, continued to defend what he believed to be the truth. It was in Florence for instance where the establishment of "Godless schools" was advocated that he published his work on the unity of education, in which he reasoned against the prevailing irreligious tendencies of the day, explaining that religion must be the basis of all education.

1.9 In order to understand the brief intervention which Rosmini was called upon to make in the affairs of his country, it is necessary to make a brief sketch of the complex political situation after 1815 (although it would require a separate volume to describe fully the political state of Italy in the nineteenth century). After the Congress of Vienna (1815) which tried to establish a certain stability in Europe by restoring the old sovereignties, Pius VIII had re-entered the temporal domains of the papacy, even though there was a French garrison in Rome. There was general unrest in the country; people were no longer prepared to accept outside rule; there were many who favoured republican rather than monarchical rule. Even after Murat's overthrow (he had been deputed by Napoleon to rule Naples and had proposed the unification of Italy) the ideal of unification remained in many minds. There was a desire in the north to free the region from the Austrians; secret societies in the south, such as the Carbonari, demanded constitutional government and national independence.

Pius VIII's rule was reactionary and his administration corrupt, with the result that confusion and insurrection prevailed. On his election in 1830, Gregory XVI asked the help of Austria in defence of the Papal States against the insurgents. Prince Metternich sent troops to Italy to occupy the Papal States and the authority of the Pope was re-established. Gioberti(31) looked to the Papacy as a means of national unity as expressed in his Primato morale e civile degli Italiani(32) which had repercussions in Italy and Europe; according to him, the Pope should lead, and the princes of Italy unite to form a federation. On his election in 1846 Pope Pius IX began a political reform in his States; he issued a political amnesty but this was short-lived. There was a revolutionary spirit throughout Italy, which began in Milan and Venice when Metternich fell in 1848. The northern troops fought the Austrians for a time; Pius IX withdrew his support from waging war against Austria (because he did not think it right for the troops of the Holy See to do more than defend its territories) and repudiated the idea of an Italian federation. Relations between the Pope and his people became strained. Rossi, whom Pius had made Prime Minister, was assassinated and Pius IX fled to Gaeta to be under the protection of Ferdinand, king of Naples. Meanwhile revolution broke out in Rome; a Roman republic was set up for a while, but was defeated once France sent troops to help the Pope return to Rome. At the same time there was unrest in Piedmont, led by Charles Albert, who abdicated the throne in 1849, in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel, under whom Italy was eventually unified in 1860.

1.10 It was against this background that Rosmini's involvement in what has come to be known as the Mission to Rome, took place. By 1848 his name was widely known and he was respected by many influential figures; his various writings on politics, constitutional right and government as well as the impression he made on those who met him show this(33). Rosmini had long considered the problem of the unification of Italy and how to prevent the revolution becoming anti-Christian. The Mazzinian republicans, who had agents in every part of Italy, wanted to incorporate the Papal States, thus making a lay State and hoping to create a "religion of humanity" which would replace Christianity (Leetham, 1957). Although he strongly approved of the movement for Italian unity, Rosmini was critical of the methods used: he believed that the only solution was for the Pope to place himself at the head of the movement. He approved of a solution on the lines of Gioberti's federation of the Italian States over which the Pope should preside. He also tried to ensure that Pius IX should not be forced to grant a hasty Constitution on the lines of the French Constitution (1830) which failed to recognise the rights of the Church (over the Pope's freedom to appoint bishops for example). As soon as he discovered that Pius IX was about to grant a Constitution, he found a way of putting his study of politics at his disposal(34) . After this, Cardinal Castracane asked Rosmini to advise the Pope over the Constitution: Rosmini sent a copy of a Progetto di Costituzione per lo Stato Romano(35) similar to the Costituente del Regno dell'Alta Italia(36), which was published when he undertook the diplomatic mission to Rome. His accompanying letter and the work arrived late: the Pope had already agreed to a Constitution contrary to Rosmini's suggestions.

After this, Rosmini went to Milan to arrange for the printing of his Costituzione secondo la Giustizia Sociale(37) and his Cinque Piaghe della Santa Chiesa(38). He remained interested in the political situation and commented openly on the attitude he would have wished the Pope to adopt. The ultimate aim of both these works was to help the Pope in the government of Italy and to suggest that the sentiments expressed in the Cinque Piaghe might be of help in her Constitution. In order to understand Rosmini's position, it has to be remembered that at that time, the Pope was a temporal ruler as well as the head of the Church. Rosmini argued with him over the justice of supporting the northern struggle for independence - if this could not be gained from Austria by peaceful means, then because of the situation, waging war might be necessary. Rosmini implied that because Pius IX was also a ruler, he had to accept certain implicit obligations, for example - preserving the rights of his people as well as freedom of the Church.

1.11 In 1848 when things were going badly for the Piedmontese, the Turin Government, headed by Casati offered Rosmini, whose influence in Rome was well known, an appointment as Special Envoy of Charles Albert They wished him to undertake a mission to Rome, as a representative of the king, to persuade Pius IX to form an alliance with Piedmont in the war against Austria. At a meeting with Casati and Gioberti, Rosmini expressed his dissatisfaction over the terms of the commission; the Piedmontese Government seemed anticlerical and opposed to the rights of the Church. Rosmini suggested that he should go to Rome to try and negotiate two proposals: a Concordat having the liberty of the Church as its foundation and a confederation of Italian States with the Pope as its president. This was accepted and the required letter from King Charles Albert given to Rosmini. As soon as Rosmini arrived in Rome there were complications; his credentials from Turin failed to arrive and meanwhile Casati's Ministry had collapsed. The new Perrone-Penelli Ministry had taken over in Turin and this caused Rosmini much concern, since the character of the mission had changed: the emphasis was now on securing Pius IX's support in the war, with little mention of the Concordat. There were also signs of an anti-religious policy - for instance, the Jesuits had been expelled from Piedmont.

Things were also changing in Rome; Pius IX's Prime Minister, Rossi, was assassinated, mainly because of his dictatorial actions, and there was a general revolution in Rome. Rosmini resigned his mission as Special Envoy but at the request of Pius IX remained in Rome. Among other things he was made Consultor of the Index; he was also offered the Cardinalate, over which he consulted the members of his Institute because, as he told the Pope, the Constitutions of the Institute demanded such consultation. Although he was advised to accept and his robes were ordered, he did not become Cardinal because in the turmoil of the time - the year is 1848 - and partly as a result of rumours attacking his orthodoxy, Rosmini lost influence. In particular Cardinal Antonelli, one of the Pope's main advisers disapproved of Rosmini's influence over Pius. Meanwhile the character of the Mission to Rome had changed.

Pius IX agreed to a new Ministry and wished Rosmini to be President but Rosmini found the Ministry unconstitutional and refused, implying that the Pope had acted under coercion; the appointment would therefore be invalid. The Pope and his entourage were forced to leave Rome because it was threatened by revolutionaries (in addition to the assassination of Rossi). One of the Pope's secretaries had been shot, and the Pope's life was in danger.

Rosmini went with Pius IX to Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples, where things were calmer. From then onwards Cardinal Antonelli seemed to control the Pope. He and Rosmini had differing views on which policy the Pope should follow: Antonelli sought to restore Pius IX's position by bringing in French troops, while Rosmini believed in asking the help of Piedmont. It seems that Rosmini was over-ridden by Antonelli. At the same time he had political enemies who sought to discredit him, and so he withdrew, first to Naples and then to a Capuchin monastery.

1.12 Opposition to Rosmini was growing; many tried to turn Pius IX against him. During his absence, his adversaries succeeded in getting two of his recently published books Costituzione secondo la Giustizia Sociale and Delle Cinque Piaghe placed on the Index(39) because of allegations mentioned earlier concerning his orthodoxy. In 1849 he returned to Stresa, where he resumed his life as priest, religious and Superior General of two congregations. He devoted himself to the development of his philosophical and theological system. Just as in the painful months at Gaeta where he felt out of place (he was faced with the hostility of members of the Papal Court and of the Neapolitan authorities, and he was under attack because of the topics discussed in his Delle Cinque Piaghe he turned to writing his Introduzione del Vangelo secondo Giovanni Commentata(40), so now, also faced with misunderstanding, he turned to books; he worked on his Psicologia(41) , Introduzione Alla Filosofia(42), his Logica(43), his Teosofia(44) and Sulla Libertà dell'lnsegnamento(45). There began a renewed attack on Rosmini; the theological controversy broke out again in 1850 and lasted four years. It had been cut short by Gregory XVI's Decree of Silence in 1843, but it was revived because Rosmini was in disgrace in Rome. This time Pius IX renewed the Decree and reserved the case to himself. He ordered a careful scrutiny of all Rosmini's published works (by the Congregation of the Index) which lasted four years. Finally in 1854, it was declared in the Decree(46) of Pius IX, that Rosmini's works were free from censure and that his name was cleared of all suspicion.

1.13 During this difficult period Rosmini was living at Stresa, his time divided between guiding the Institute of Charity and the Sisters of Providence; writing, and trying to bring about some understanding between the anti-religious Piedmontese government and Rome. His health began to break down. He had been unwell most of his life: the experience in Rome and Gaeta, when he was under suspicion; the years 1850-1854 when his works were under examination and the long trial of being held suspect by the Church all added to his ill health. At the age of 58 he became physically weak; he had suffered from a liver complaint from the age of twenty and in May of that year it was obvious that he was getting worse. He died on 1 July 1855, surrounded by members of his Institute. News of his death was telegraphed to the diplomatic representatives abroad by the Piedmontese Government. Count Camillo Cavour, Prime Minister in Piedmont since 1852, had the news of Rosmini's death telegraphed throughout Italy and Europe as an event of national importance. He is buried at Stresa and over his tomb is inscribed the eulogy of Gregory XVI:

NOTES

(1) Early in the eighteenth century Gianantonio Rosmini added the suffix Serbati to the family name. (It was his mother's).

(2). Rovereto was a flourishing small town, which maintained and preserved a strong sense of unity despite being frequently fought over for political reasons and because of its position - it borders France, Austria and Switzerland.

(3). Niccolò Tommaseo (1802-1874) holds a high place in the literature of the Risorgimento. He was exiled twice for his patriotic involvements. He records:

I was just sixteen years old when 1 met Antonio Rosmini; he was in his fourth year Theology when 1 was doing second year Law. How much 1 owe to this acquaintance with him 1 cannot tell... 1 did not take to him at first; his mind was too lofty for me, his virtue too severe." (Tommaseo in Salvadori 1926). Tommaseo was with Rosmini during his last days at Stresa.

(4). In the Panegyric, Rosmini defended the rights of the Holy See against the aggressions of Austria. He denounced both the acts and the policy of Napoleon, and the extravagances and the principles of the Revolution. He praised the moral greatness of Pius VII and showed the difficulties he faced in dealing with Napoleon - for example the insult which Napoleon offered by stating that the Emperor knew better than the Pope what concerned the interests of the Church. (Lockhart 1886).

(5). On Christian Education(1823).

(6). Alessandro Manzoni (1802-1874) poet, novelist and historical writer.

(7). Saggio sull'Unità dell'Educazione (An Essay on the Unity of Education) (1826).

(8). Monte Calvario, in Domodossola is close to the Swiss frontier. It was here that Rosmini founded his Institute. The house still belongs to the Order.

(9). Nuovo Saggio sull'Origine delle Idee (A new Essay on the Origin of Ideas (1830).

(10) The Institute of Charity, often refered to as "Rosminians", founded in 1828, is a society of Christians whose aim is to live the Gospel in action. No specific ends are given other than those of the Gospel. In this the Institute is unique. The Sisters of Providence, also known as Rosminians, were founded in 1832. Don Löewenbruck had gathered together some girls from Ossola and eventually handed the care of them over to Rosmini who drew up suitable guidelines for them, introducing them to the same spirit as that of the Institute.

(11). Epistolario Completo (The Complete Collection of the Letters of Rosmini) (1905).

(12). Luigi Gentili (1801-1848) arrived at Calvario in 1831, a newly ordained priest, to begin his novitiate with the Institute. He became a pioneer of the Institute in England and Ireland, preaching retreats and missions. He died of the famine fever in Ireland, where he is buried at St. Michael's College, Omeath in Louth.

(13). Ambrose Phillips de Lisle (1809-1877) of Garendon, Leicestershire became a convert to Catholicism at the age of sixteen, at Loughborough, to the consternation of his family. He and his newly converted friend, George Spencer, son of Earl Spencer, went to Rome. It was there that he met Gentili.

(14). Rosmini entrusted the organisation of the work to Gentili; the buildings incorporated a novitiate and a college.

(15). Principi della Scienza Morale (Principles of Moral Science) (1831).

(16). The form of religious poverty which was advocated was new. Rosmini insisted that the members of the Order should be able to retain the radical dominion (i.e. legal rights) of property in the eyes of the civil law, although personally submitting it to the Institute. He feared that the anti-clerical activists would confiscate the property of ecclesiastical institutions.

(17). Antropologia in Servigio della Scienza Morale (Anthropology in the Servigio Moral Science) (1838).

(18). Il Rinnovamento della Filosofia in Italia (The Renewal of Philosophy in Italy) (1836).

(19). Catechismo secondo l'ordine delle idee (A Catechism according to the Order of Ideas (1838).

(20). Del Principio Supremo della Methodica e di alcune sue applicazioni in servizio della Umana Educazione (The Ruling Principle of Method in Education (1857) (posthumous).

(21). Treatise on Conscience. Until 1840, Rosmini's doctrine had been accepted. His philosophy was taught in many universities and seminaries of Italy; his orthodoxy had not been questioned. The publication of the Trattato della Coscienza (1839) brought about a period of accusation from which his name was not to recover, even though his works were free from further censure and allowed to be taught.

(22). The pamphlet, Alcune affermazioni del Signor Antonio Rosmini prete roveretano con un saggio di riflessioni scritte da Eusebio Cristiano (Some affirmations of Antonio Rosmini, priest of Rovereto, with a few reflections written by Eusebio Cristiano) (1841).

(23). Risposta al finto Eusebio (Reply to the so-called Eusebio) (1841).

(24). "The imposition of silence is a complete victory for you and your Institute. It removes all suspicion of false doctrine attributed to your writings, and discourages rumours that have been spread about that your works are condemned" (Cardinal Castracane to Rosmini 1 April, 1843).

(25). Filosofia del Diritto (Philosophy of Right) (1841).

(26). Theodicy (A vindication of Divine Providence in view of the existence of evil) (1845).

(27). Saggio sulla Divina Provvidenza (Essay on Divine Providence) (1826).

(28). Vincenzo Gioberti e il Panteisrno (Gioberti and Pantheism (1846).

(29). During the eighteenth century there was an attempt in Italy to produce a Christian Encyclopaedia which would counteract the work of the French Encyclopaedia (1751-1772) which at that particular time permeated Europe, attacking its religious and social beliefs. (Fisher, 1936. p.698).
Rosmini had already realised that knowledge is a unity and that the confusion of European thought was due to the lack of a criterion of certainty, and he feared that Christianity, in a world where it had lost most of its influence, could not infuse its saving spirit into all the new complications of human science without entering fully into the new knowledge. (Leetham, 1957. p.24).

(30). Gioia, "one of the most powerful minds in Italy" (Leetham, 1957) and Romagnosi, a legist and philosopher who contributed to the compilation of the criminal code of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, were two of the main propagators of the anti-Christian philosophy. Romagnosi attacked Rosmini for opposing the sensistic ideas then prevalent (and disputed about Divine Providence in relation to good and evil.). Rosmini answered these objections in his Theodicy, showing how they came from ignorance of physical causes. He entered into the problem of the nature and origin of evil showing that the possibility of evil is intrinsic to human beings. (Based on Lockhart, 1886. p.161-2).

(31). Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-1852) became a court theologian at Turin but was dismissed because of his part in the Mazzinian conspiracy, after which he was sent to prison. His philosophical works put him in contact with Rosmini. He was a member of the Casati ministry in 1848 and suggested Rosmini's mission to Rome. His Primato(32a) had a strong influence on Pius IX. It also gave to the moderate Italians a positive alternative to the activities of the political sects and the republicanism of Mazzini. In it he pointed out that if Italy was to become a nation, it would be necessary for Rome and Turin to have a close understanding. (Leetham, 1957. p.73, .340).

(32). (32a) The Pope as the moral and civil Primate of the Italians.

(33). "Rosmini was born for friendship and his ideals of friendship were of the highest" wrote Leetham (1957 p.9). In the course of time, men and women of very different characters and backgrounds became part of his life. Mention has already been made of Tommaseo, Manzoni and Gioberti. Cavour consulted Rosmini over a journal he wished to publish (Risorgimento : not only did Rosmini approve of this, but he also contributed to the work. He was held in esteem both for the work he did and the advice he gave to at least three Popes; references are found elsewhere in the present work. His philosophy was taught in many parts of Italy; Lacordaire and Montalembert supported translation of the Nuovo Saggio.

(34). "1 assure you in strict confidence, that 1 too, am in great anxiety about what is happening in Rome... if you think it prudent you may tell our Cardinal Castracane that since 1 have studied politics, if he thinks 1 could be of use, he has only to command me". (Letter of Rosmini to Don Carlo Gilardi at Rome, 25 Feb. 1848a).
Following this, Rosmini was asked for his help. He sent notes on a Constitution for the Papal States with a letter, of which the following is an extract: "This is not the thought of the moment; it is the outcome of twenty years of serious consideration. 1 should not like to see it thrown away after a cursory glance, but weighed well in its consequences" (Letter, 10 March, 1848b).

(35). Project of a Statute for the Roman States.(1848).

(36). Project for a Constitution for ltaly.(1848).

(37). Constitution according to Social Justice. (1848).

(38). The Five Wounds of the Church. Although written in 1832-3 this book was not published until 1848. Rosmini understood that the time had come for him to express his ideas on certain issues within the Church. It is a book which suggests more liberty for the Church, for the reform of the clergy and of the liturgy. He lists and discusses these "Five Wounds" within the Church:

(39). "Condemned as unorthodox".

(40). A Commentary on the Introduction to John's Gospel. The work was meant to be in 3 parts; the manuscript breaks off before Part 11 is completed. This was published in 1882, and again in 1966 (as part of the National Edition of Rosmini's works). Selected passages from this, in English, The Life of Our Lord were published in 1983. The work is considered a compendium of Rosminian theology and one of the finest of his religious works.

(41). Psychology (1850).

(42). Introduction to Philosophy (1850).

(43). Logic (1854).

(44). Theosophy. (1859).

(45). On the Liberty of Teaching.(1854).

(46). "All the works of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati recently examined are to be dismissed; nor has any slur been cast by this examination on the name of the author or on the Society founded by him." Decree of Pius IX (1854) "Dimittantur Opera Antonii Rosmini" (communicated privately to Rosmini).

REFERENCES