CHAPTER 2

THE EDUCATIONAL TRADITION WHICH
ROSMINI SHARES

INTRODUCTION

It is necessary to consider Rosmini within the tradition he shares, firstly in order to understand how conversant he was with what had been written and done in the field of education, and secondly to see how he relates to this tradition. (In Chapter 3 we shall examine his own contribution.) While it is not the intent of the present work to cover the history of education in detail, but rather to give a broad survey of the European educational scene, it will nevertheless be useful to look at certain educationists and philosophers whose views influenced Rosmini, and at those areas which have a bearing on his thought.
Without giving a comprehensive list at this point, it is enough to state in general terms that Rosmini was interested in a wide range of thinkers from the time of the Greeks, to such Christian contributors as St Augustine, and in later times the Jesuit educators, as well as others whom he refers to without always wholly agreeing with their views for example Comenius, Locke, Rousseau and Froebel, Newman and Mme Necker de Saussure - all of whose visions of the education of the human person he studied.

2.1 It was with the invention of writing that formal education came into existence for the élite of society, first in Egypt and later in Greece. This education in time required schools, as the work of teaching became too skilled to be carried out at home. The Greeks held the formation of the whole person as their ideal; education was concerned with life and wisdom rather than with the intellect or practical skills. By the end of the eighth century B.C., although considerable emphasis was put on music, the arts and physical training - "a good mind must have a good body to serve it." (Plato in Guthrie, 1956) - yet the purpose was still a moral one, so that children might, according to Plato: "become more civilised, more balanced and better adjusted in themselves... for rhythm and harmonious adjustment are essential to the whole of human life" (Plato in Guthrie, 1956).

It was the Greeks who first understood and gave expression to the ideal of perfecting the whole man, of unfolding and developing all his powers to the full. Development from within and self-realisation were the means and aim of education. For Plato, the education of the individual was closely bound up with society. He believed that the seeds of knowledge exist in every human being and that it is the function of the teacher to help the pupil to discover the truth for himself. He distinguished between teaching - instruction from without - and true education, which is the process of drawing out what is already latent in the pupil, who must willingly undertake this process himself. (Plato in Guthrie 1956). He is responsible for the educational ideal (often attributed to Rousseau) that the nature of the learner and the learning process are of greater importance than the material to be studied. His philosophy was a spiritual one; he believed that the world perceived by the senses is only a shadow of reality, a philosophy which, with an important change in perspective, was developed more fully in the later Christian era. For him the purpose of education was not to develop certain abilities, nor to give specific instruction but to make human beings able to achieve their true destiny - to know good. Rosmini reiterates these values twenty-four centuries later, in his Sull'Unità which will be examined in Chapter 3.

2.2 For the Romans, the aim of education - the making of good "orators" and good citizens who would be at the practical service of their country (as farmers, soldiers or statesmen) was put before young men as an ideal. The education of girls was not seriously considered until very late, apart from the private upbringing of young ladies in relatively well-to-do households. Although the Romans derived their system of education from the Greeks, their outlook was more practical, and little value was set on knowledge which had no direct bearing on practical life. Children learned by watching and imitating those at home. During the first seven years of the child's life, the mother was the main educative influence, training the child in virtue and respect for the tradition. From then onwards education was concerned with sons of the family; the father would take them over, stressing moral qualities and practical skills, things which made for sound living. At the age of sixteen, the boy was registered as a citizen and ready for military service.

Education during the first period (600 B.C. to 300 B.C.) can be summed up in the following words of Scipio in De Republica(1).. "Thanks to my father 1 got a liberal education and from my childhood I have sought eagerly to instruct myself. Nevertheless, experience and home education have done more to make me what 1 am than books". (Cicero, in Sutton, 1942). Two main factors began to affect education during the next period (300 B.C. to the Christian era): the extension of the Roman Empire and the influence of Greek ideas and culture. Schools began to take the place of home as the providers of education. Certain Roman philosophers stated important educational principles: Juvenal said, "The greatest reverence is due to the child" (Satire, XIV). And Seneca in Epistulae Morales(2) believed, "we should learn for life, not for school." (Seneca in Gummere, 1920). These ideas are paralleled in Rosmini: "To form man completely - the first action of education - it is important not to neglect any of the ends related to man." (Rosmini, 1826).

2.3 Once Christianity was established in Europe it brought with it a new ideal of human freedom and gave a deeper sense of purpose to education, which in time was to have a profound influence on schools. The emphasis of Christian education was on the soul as well as on the intellect and it advocated respect for the personality of the individual. Many philosophical questions concerning education were discussed by early Christians: Augustine, one of the earliest theorists,s teacher of rhetoric before his conversion in 389, had a clear vision of the teacher's role and created a detailed programme with a defined methodology. (De Doctrina Christiana(3). He founded his belief on the "inner teacher" (see below). He combined spiritual qualities with his methodology, stating that the most essential quality is a genuine love for the pupil, and he saw the teacher's role as one of nurturing, preparing the conditions for the life to develop. (De Catechizandis Rudibus(4). Example is more important than speech and moral formation more significant than intellectualism. Education is not a matter of words or collecting information, but of growth in understanding and an endless search for the truth which lies within each person, since, as he said: "when the interior truth makes known to them that true things have been said, they applaud, but without knowing that instead of applauding teachers they are applauding learners." (Augustine in Oates, 1948. p.394-5). To Augustine, teaching was a "dwelling in each other" a working together based on the belief in the pupil's capacity for mental growth. This concept foreshadows what is best in the present day educational relationship between teacher and pupil.

2.4 Thomas Aquinas' theory of teaching is part of his philosophy; it is one of wisdom rather than knowledge. Knowledge, progressing from sense experience, reaches its heights in the wisdom of metaphysics, and this is complemented by a progression downwards from revelation. Aquinas shares with Augustine the complex idea of a relationship involving the pupil, the teacher and God. The teacher is partially responsible for the result but it is only the pupil's active intelligence which can reach understanding. He believed, like Plato and Aristotle, that virtue could not be taught; but was to be acquired, not simply by intellectual application but also through imitation - the child is led to admire good models. Pupils must be assisted to practise virtue and taught the content of the moral law. He saw teaching as a religious activity and commented that a true teacher is one who teaches truth and enlightens the mind. (De Magistro(5). Both Augustine's and Aquinas' ideas are echoed in Rosmini's works, particularly in his Sull'Unità dell'Educazione (which will be examined in more detail in Chapter 3) and also in his Antropologia and Metodica.

2.5 During the Middle Ages the Church was forced to provide some means of learning for its clerics, and Schools were established (in Paris and Padua for example) especially for the benefit of the Church. These were concerned with the teaching of philosophy and theology (and they developed into the universities). The course began with an adaptation of the "Seven Liberal Arts": the "trivium" (a basic course in grammar, rhetoric and logic) and the "quadrivium" (the four subjects arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music). The European Renaissance discovered the rich world of Greece and Rome and one of the results was that Latin and Greek languages were at the centre of the curricula of the Grammar Schools. The classical curriculum of the Public Schools grew from this tradition and held its own until recently. (Likewise, the University of Oxford "Literae Humaniores" course, which produced many of the country's outstanding figures, still has its place today).

This rediscovery of the riches and beauty of the ancient world, this rebirth of the human spirit, broadened men's minds and brought to the fore the Greek notion of faith in man. The humanists of the Renaissance period reflect this emerging faith in man as portrayed by da Feltre in: "The choice of studies will depend to some extent upon the character of individual minds.... The natural bent should be recognised and followed in education" (da Feltre in Woodward, 1905 p. 24).

2.6 During the Renaissance period, much attention was given to moral formation Among those whose were interested in education during this time were da Feltre in Italy, Vives in Spain, Thomas More and his pupil Elyot, John Colet and John Fisher in England, and Erasmus in Holland. The humanists of this period produced educational literature and some of the men who developed their ideas at the end of the fifteenth century belonged to the circle including Colet and More. The educational ideals of the true spirit of the Renaissance were put in writing by Vergerio but carried out by Vittorino da Feltre who was active in Italy as a teacher in the early part of the fifteenth century. He believed that the teacher must be a suitably qualified person so that he could influence his pupils both by example and instruction. The emphasis was on character, with learning and conduct as aims of a "liberal" education: his ideal was to form fine scholars who would be at the same time good citizens having a high sense of social obligation as well as developing their own personal talents. Mention must be made of the contribution of Vives in the sixteenth century. He was a Spaniard but moved about Europe, living at various times in Paris, England and Belgium: his influence was widespread. One important contribution was his consideration of the education of girls and his De Anima et Vita(6) led to the idea that education must be based on an understanding of the mind of the learner and the importance of the senses. He also showed a concern for the pupil and stressed the need for a curriculum based on the mental qualities of each pupil. Whereas many educators stress a particular aspect of education, Vives has a careful balance between piety and humanism, between intellectual ability and practical knowledge. More and his associates, including Colet, Erasmus and Fisher, were responsible for bringing the spirit of the Renaissance to England.

2.7. More also fostered in his household the appreciation of art and literature and of human achievement in general and encouraged the enjoyment of wide learning and experience: from this came speculation over a way to a happier community which led to theories on the improvement of education. (Curtis, 1962). His Utopia points out among other things a way for English education. His insistence that children should be taught in their native tongue and should learn to use it well, was re-echoed by his followers and widely accepted during the sixteenth century. In describing More's household, Erasmus is first reminded of Plato's academy; he then decided to call it a school or university of Christian religion, since everyone there studied a branch of liberal education, the special care being for virtue and piety.

2.8 Sir Thomas Elyot, a member of More's household, produced the first major work in English on education. The Governour (1531) showed the influence of the Renaissance and stresses the importance of the child in the first years of life who must be seen as an individual. He wrote for the education of young men of his own class - education for leadership and responsibility: those who would become leaders and officials of the State would receive an education designed to allow their capabilities and abilities to develop. Greek and Latin were important and should be taught at infant level; he also emphasized music and physical training.

2.9 Erasmus, one of the most influential thinkers of his time and keenly interested in the development of humanism, had much to say on many aspects of education. He stressed the importance of the early years in On the Liberal Education of Boys, pointing out that children's first impressions must be good and happy. Two points in particular stand out in his philosophy of education: first, nature, training and practice; and second, the social aspect. He had great faith in the power of education and believed that the right method is that which follows the pupil's nature: he recognised clearly the value of natural spontaneous activity as the basic and most effective way of teaching. He stated: "Nature... claims the help of the schoolmaster in carrying forward the special gifts with which she has endowed the child... Follow nature therefore... and strive to give to learning the quality of freedom and enjoyment". (Erasmus in Woodward, 1904. p.213-217).

2.10 With the dissolution of the monasteries (which had previously played a large part in education) during the Reformation, went the long-standing structure of education: there was a need for new schools for ordinary people as well as for scholars. Luther drew attention to the need of the State to provide compulsory education which would be free from the power of the Church. He wished it to be free from restrictions, allowing a wide curriculum and range of experience, including adequate relaxation; he would have children learn, "not only the languages and history, but singing and instrumental music". (Woodward, 1906. p.240) Since reformers such as Melancthon, Sturm and Calvin had certain views on education, which were related to their religious convictions, the newly formed Society of Jesus (Jesuits) found it necessary to make a stand against Protestantism; and soon realised the value of education in their campaign. Their schools spread rapidly; and by the end of the century they had control over much of the higher education in general, resulting partly from their pedagogic system which combined piety, enthusiasm and academic excellence.

In 1599 they produced the Ratio Studiorum(7) which grew out of a long, wide consultative process based on the wisdom and experience of the whole Society. It not only offered a curriculum but served as a handbook to the whole educational system; it included all aspects of education, regulating the details of method and curriculum for Jesuit schools and universities. The Jesuit conception of the work of the teacher was based on an understanding of children and a firm belief in each one's potential in order to search for the best way in which to help in development: "The true teacher must understand, appreciate and sympathise with those committed to him. He must be daily discovering what there is capable of fruitful development." (Quick, 1868. pp.57-8).

The co-operation of pupils in the learning process is essential in the Jesuit idea of education but the Jesuit educators are fully aware that such a response depends to a great extent on the relationship between the teacher and pupils: "When pupils love the master they will soon love his teaching.
Let him therefore, show an interest in everything that concerns them and not merely in their studies". (Quick, 1868. p.55). Above all the Jesuit education acknowledges God as the Author of all reality, truth and knowledge; the school tries to create a sense of wonder and mystery in learning about God's creation; it therefore "probes the meaning of human life and is concerned with the total formation of each student instilling a joy in learning coupled with a desire to learn which will remain beyond school-days." (Ratio Studiorum 1: 1,2, 22).

Rosmini was interested in the Ratio, (Pusineri, 1942) and when Gentili (whom he had sent to England at the request of Ambrose Phillips) proposed the opening of a college, Rosmini advised him to study the Ratio of the Jesuits (E.C. 5725) as well as taking the best from what his study of English schools had revealed. (Rosmini, 1848).

2.11 The influence of Elyot's work on educational thought was considerable; his translation of Plutarch's work on the education of children was widely circulated and would have been more so, except for the interruption of the Reformation and its changes. Elementary schools were almost destroyed as well as what had been achieved by religious orders. Under Henry VIII, who destroyed the monasteries, but who did found schools (often using what had been monastic sites) and Queen Elizabeth a new interest in education developed and many schools were founded or refounded. Many books on education were published, notably by Queen Elizabeth's tutor, Roger Ascham, for example, whose Scholemaster (1570) reflected the thought of Erasmus and Vives. Ascham said that the teacher must study his pupils and see their individual potential. He was careful not to overlook those pupils who do not show their academic ability at an early age.

He believed that learning goes with love and stressed the value of praise (Ascham, 1570. p.20). Many of the ideas still current in the twentieth century were put into practice by a notable schoolmaster in the sixteenth, Richard Mulcaster, headmaster successively of Merchant Taylors, School and St. Paul's. He advocated education for all children irrespective of whether they were rich or poor, and believed that education is not merely a matter of intellectual training but of all-round development: "why is it not good to have every parte of the body and every power of the soul to be fined to his best?"(Mulcaster, 1581. p.34). He stressed the importance of the early stages of education while being aware that children mature at different rates; he said education must follow nature: "the end of education... is to help natur unto hir perfection" (Mulcaster, 1582. pp. 18,3 1). He laid emphasis on the study of the vernacular and on physical training and pointed to the need for well-trained teachers.

These ideas find an echo in Rosmini particularly in his Metodica and Sull'Unità and will be studied in a later chapter. During the sixteenth century, new possibilities were opened to man and society, through the influence of advances in science, travel, exploration and the greater wealth resulting from trade. In Italy, two contradictory aims emerged: firstly the need for an education which would produce men of affairs and good citizens rather than fine scholars, and secondly the need for a full, well-rounded secular personality. In France the emphasis was on individuality and freedom to follow one's bent whether in learning or life, while in England, three approaches to education can be distinguished in the late sixteenth century. There was the traditional training of a member of the ruling classes (cf. "The Boke named the Governour", and Castiglione's "Courtier"); the "grammar" schools, in the humanist tradition, with the emphasis on Latin and Greek; in addition there was an increasing movement to give more importance to English, and to other subjects with a greater bearing on practical life. Here Richard Mulcaster's influence was important. He established a good foundation in English, as well as paying great attention to physical education ( P.E.).

2.12 Educational progress at the beginning of the seventeenth century was hampered on the Continent by the Thirty Years, War and in England by the Civil War. Initially the grammar schools continued to work on traditional lines with the emphasis on the study of the vernacular and modem subjects, rather than on the study of the classics as the only basis of education. Individuals tried to show a better way both in theory and practice; one of these was Francis Bacon, although his influence was indirect. In his Advancement of Learning, his challenge was that those involved in education should no longer be satisfied (because of the influence of science) with the authority of books; instead they should learn from nature and first-hand observation.

He was aware of the many aspects of education: the importance of first beginnings; the need to understand the place of feelings and their nature and the need to study individual children and adapt work to their abilities, coupled with the importance of following their natural interests. (Bacon, 1605. p.33). He recommended the setting up of a college of universal learning. He wanted to see a classification of the various branches of knowledge in order to discover what required further investigation. His influence was to prove revolutionary and the application of his ideas by others, Comenius, for example, was to alter education. In Germany there was a move towards a better system than that provided by the conservative grammar schools. Among those interested was John Comenius.

His writings reappeared during the upsurge of educational thought in the nineteenth century and his ideas can be traced in most of the influential educators of that time(8). Butler (1892) says that his place is one "of commanding importance". Comenius introduced and dominated the whole of the modem movement in the field of elementary and secondary education". He sought a philosophy of education as well as being interested in methods: he set out his ideas in The Great Didactic (1632), and his main purpose was to find a way "in which schools may cease to persuade and begin to demonstrate; cease to dispute and begin to look; cease to believe and begin to know". (Comenius, 1632). In The Great Didactic, he described four stages of education corresponding to infancy - mother-school which is the home, childhood - the vernacular school in every village, boyhood - a gymnasium in every city, and youth - a university in every kingdom. He was a practising teacher, he began with children, not with subjects, and held that education would be easy and pleasing if it followed the course of nature and was suited to the needs of the pupils at the various stages of development. "Nothing should be taught to the young, unless it is not only permitted but actually demanded by their age and mental strength." (Comenius, 1632).

He produced a series of graded textbooks containing a system of universal instruction adapted to children of different ages. In his Janua Rerum(9) , he envisaged a systematic presentation of ideas relating to God, nature and art, in encyclopaedic form, with the aim of providing a rational and interrelated whole. He believed, as did Rosmini, that a school should do more than train the intellect; it should train the heart as well as the head:

A significant contribution was made by Comenius to education, because he put into practice his belief, (based on the tradition descending from Aristotle, Plato, Seneca and Cicero) that all growth, learning and development comes from within and that the educator's part is to lead and guide. Rosmini was to follow in this tradition.

2.13 In mid-seventeenth century France, apart from the charity schools, there was not a great deal done for popular education; practically all the schools were run by religious orders, headed by the Jesuits. An important step was taken in 1682 with the setting up of the Brethren of Christian Schools by John Baptist de la Salle. The Oratorians, founded in 1611 for the education of priests, also opened schools and worked in the spirit of Descartes; those schools continued until the Revolution. Descartes proclaimed the principles of freedom already mentioned and based his philosophy on the theories of Bacon, at the heart of which was his belief in reasoning as a natural activity. In 1646 the Little Schools of Port Royal were established in Paris. Although they only lasted a short time their influence brought about a new spirit in the French educational system. Those who had taught in the Port Royal schools (Lancelot, Amauld and Coustel) wrote books on education which were to have a lasting influence on education generally, and not only in France. Their ideas were inspired by the Abbot of St. Cyran, founder of the Port Royal Schools, who regarded education as of great importance, and had a keen interest in children and their psychology. The aims of the schools were two: the formation of Christian character in pupils and to make pupils think. Their theories were based on practice and founded on a love and understanding of children. Pascal wrote: "We must treat them with courtesy and speak to them with deference and give way to them as much as possible. This wins them over..." (Pascal in Cadet, 1898). Learning was to begin with the familiar and the concrete. They valued the feeling side of human nature realising the need for education of the affections: "Since then the heart is the most important part of man, we must pay more heed to it than to the intellect" (Cadet, 1898, p.124).

2.14 Above all, love of God was the basic principle of the education of Port Royal, coupled with a lively spirit of enquiry and a search for truth. In the mid-to-late seventeenth century, during the Commonwealth, much attention was given to education by a group of English social reformers who devoted their attention to the education of poor children and had faith in the power of the State to bring about social betterment through education. In 1640 Comenius and Dury were invited to England by the House of Commons with the intention of founding a college based on Bacon's idea in the unfinished New Atlantis (in which he gives a sketch of an ideal state). Comenius' vision was of a world united in brotherhood by a universal knowledge of nature, men and things. This state was to be brought about by a "Universal College" in which all knowledge could be collected and classified and in which teachers could be trained; "Universal Books" to be written by teams of scholars on all subjects and in all languages (an idea with which Rosmini concurred); "Universal Schools" - education for all - men and women and a "Universal Language", a new international language to be invented which would replace Latin. (Curtis, 1960, p.30). Because of the outbreak of the Civil War, Comenius' plan for the college in London came to nothing. The work of the reform however was to be continued by Samuel Hartlib, head of the group of social reformers, under whose influence three educational treatises were published. The first was written by William Petty in 1647 (a doctor in Cromwell's Irish army) and includes one of the earliest detailed child studies:

The second treatise, Tractate on Education (1644), was written by John Milton. Learning was to be through the senses, and things were to be introduced before learning languages. Milton's idea of education emphasised thought rather than language, content rather than form and incorporated a wide view of the practical end to be reached: 'I call therefore a compleat and generous Education that which fits a man to perform, justly, skilfully and magnanimously all the offices both private and publick of Peace and War" (Milton in Browning, 1905, p.8). The third treatise, The Reformed School (1650) was written by John Dury he believed that teaching must be adapted to children's abilities and must follow the natural stages of development, through the senses which means that the school should be equipped with a variety of visual aids. He put training of character before intellectual development:

2.15 Much of the philosophy deriving from the puritan belief in the importance of education is preserved in the educational writings of John Locke at the end of the seventeenth century. Some Thoughts Concerning Education deals primarily with the child; he put forward a plan which regards the child's mind as a blank slate ready to be written upon by experience. He considered children as individuals, and states that they can only be educated as such; according to him education means more than learning from books:

Locke's plan included character, judgment, a knowledge of human beings, good manners and responsibility (it has to be borne in mind that he is concerned with the children of gentlefolk); learning is more than a matter of rote repetition, it is concerned with the development of the whole person. Although virtue heads his list of educational aims, he had little to say about moral education. Common sense comes before intellectual ability..

Locke saw the importance of freedom in education, freedom for children to be themselves and to learn in their own way; this does not mean that the role of the teacher is a negative one: "(Children) should be allow'd the liberties and Freedoms suitable to their Ages... If they are not enough forward of themselves, a good Disposition should be talk'd into them" (Locke in Quick, 1894, pp.45-53). Apart from his insistence on a "well regulated liberty" in child education, Locke's most important contribution to educational thought is his emphasis on the need for each one to train his own understanding by constantly comparing and weighing up others' ideas; he discusses this in his Essay on the Human Understanding. At the time Rosmini wrote, the philosophy of Locke and his followers was dominant in Italy and many conclusions drawn from its principles had already penetrated into literature and society. Rosmini examined the work of Locke in his Nuovo Saggio and as a philosopher disagreed with his philosophy (viz. that the mind passively receives ideas through sense impressions of external objects) by showing the confusion which he claimed exists in Locke between intellectual perception and sense perception. (see also note 1. Chapter 3).

2.16 In the eighteenth century there was an important contribution to both theory and action by the French which was to affect Europe as a whole. Voltaire led the revolt against the social and political regime: reason was to take the place of authority, which in turn called for a new belief in the worth of man. In the field of education Rousseau in his Contrat Social (1762)(10) added a visionary dimension to what was becoming known as the "Age of Enlightenment"; he put forward a new belief in man and a new estimate of his worth, which meant that everyone had the right to the type of education which would develop his natural powers. This in turn meant that education had to be based on the nature of children and educationists were to begin by studying them; in Émile we are advised to: "Hold childhood in reverence... Give nature time to work before you take over her business" (Rousseau trans. Foxley 1911, p.7 1), One example of the action (i.e. the practical effect) is the work of the Christian Schools, founded by John Baptist de la Salle in 1682. Again, although Rousseau was a theorist rather than a practical teacher, according to Boyd (1947, p.30l), Émile was by far the most considerable book written on education in the eighteenth century judged by effects on thought and action. And "Most important of all the effect on those seriously interested in education, as statesmen and educators" (Boyd, 1947, p.30). Just as in his Discours, Sur L'Origine de L'Inégalité (1755)(11) and his Contrat Social, Rousseau provided main ideas of government for the leaders of the French Revolution, so in Émile he presented his main ideas on education, - ideas which were to have a profound effect on education in both Europe and America. The keynote of Rousseau's theories were nature and freedom. He emphasised that the child has to be "formed" by education; he believed in guidance and in a "well regulated liberty". According to him the aim of education is not to make the child into a scholar and give him knowledge, but to make him wise and good and a lover of truth. (This idea echoes the thoughts of many of Rousseau's predecessors and Rosmini was to take it up later). The whole of Émile is an attempt to portray this principle. Moreover Émile was instrumental in making statesmen and educators in many countries think about educational matters which would serve both individual children and society as a whole. For Rousseau, education had a social rather than an intellectual purpose and should enable the child to live in, and make his personal contribution to society.

2.17 It is worthwhile turning to Rosmini at this point: he was influenced by the social and intellectual climate of his time, since the nineteenth century was rich in educational thought and writing as a result of the lingering influence of Émile and the writings of Pestalozzi. Italy at this time, as well as producing educational writers, was also bound up with political controversy and the desire for freedom and national unity. Interest in problems of education resulted in works by men such as Gioberti and Tommaseo who saw education as a means through which Italy could once more become a great country. And Rosmini, like his contemporaries, was keen to re-establish the moral and intellectual balance of his countrymen. Rousseau believed that man is by nature "good" whereas Rosmini believed that the child is neither good nor bad: Rousseau saw the work of education as protecting the child from society while Rosmini saw society as helping the child to develop his personality as a member of society. While Rousseau believed that the concept of God was difficult for the child to grasp, Rosmini believed that it comes naturally to, and may even be taken for granted by the child. On the other hand, both men were insistent on a deep knowledge of the stages of child development on the part of educators. Rousseau saw clearly that not only are children different from adults but that "every age, every station in life has a perfection, a ripeness of its own" (Rousseau in Foxley, 1911, p. 122), and both believed that the real principles of method should be built on nature coupled with a respect for the freedom of the pupil. Rosmini agreed with Rousseau that education must be based on perception and sense experience, so that the child should be given objects for his own experimentation. The teacher's first duty, according to Rosmini, is to "regulate the observations and experiments of the child" (Rosmini, 1855) and as Rousseau advised, "let the senses be the only guide for the first workings of reason" (Rousseau, in Foxley, 1911, p. 13 1).

2.18 After Rousseau, in the latter half of the eighteenth century the idea of education as a process fostering individual development, began to spread and achieved a new clarity in the work of Kant who was greatly influenced by Émile. Much of his philosophy reflects the thought of Rousseau. Like him, Kant believed that teaching should be adapted to the stage of development of the pupil and, far from leaving children passive, education must teach them to think. He believed in the goodness of man and held that the human person can and must be treated as an end, never as a means; it is therefore necessary "to see to it that men become not only clever but good" (Kant, in Churton, 1899, p. 15). This is caught up with morality, which he said is more representative of man's nature than the intellect or the acquisition of knowledge: "It is morality alone which gives meaning to man and at the same time puts an end into educational thought and effort" Buchner, 1904, p.69).

2.19 Kant was not so much concerned with curriculum or methods in education as with experience within the individual pupil in the different stages of educational development. Understanding, which he maintained is different from memory, must be based on experience. He said that parents are frequently looking for talent and dexterity in their children and not at all for their heart or character, (Buchner, 1904, p.228). Rosmini concurred with these ideas: he had much to say in Sull'Unità on character formation and morality; for him education is concerned with forming the affections, and these ideas will be examined later in more detail. It is interesting to discover how the writing of Kant influenced Rosmini at another level. Rosmini's intention at the beginning of his philosophical research was to observe the nature of cognition. Like Kant, he discovered that the sense-powers and experience are responsible for whatever is "material" in our knowledge of things but that the mind is responsible for what is "formal". He resolved to move gradually, carefully examining the different forms in which thought presents itself. This led him to expound his views on the true nature, origin and certainty of ideas and to the composition of his Nuovo Saggio. At this time he also gained some understanding of the nature of sensation, of intelligence and of cognition and began to write his treatises on anthropology and psychology.

2.20 Another important educator worthy of consideration here is Pestalozzi. He had observed children and what he believed was the result of what he had tried out in practice. His faith in the innate goodness of man and in love as the vital force in education, permeated his entire theory and practice. His attitude to children and his plea for a balanced development of all aspects of the child was not to be seen in isolation but in the context of humanity: "Education is nothing more than the polishing of each single link in the great chain that binds humanity together and gives it unity." (Pestalozzi, in Kilpatrick, 1951, p.32). And the education worth the name, "necessarily strives after the perfection of man's powers in their completeness" (Pestalozzi, in Green, 1912, p.269). This completeness can only be achieved by a gradual process and by working in step with the child's unfolding abilities and capabilities. Although Rosmini referred directly to the Swiss educator only twice in his writings, many of his ideas in education bear a striking resemblance to those of Pestalozzi. Both men believed that religion is basic to educational thought and that the child should receive an early religious education.

2.21 The acquisition of moral values is a fundamental aspect of education, for both held that it was the whole person who was being educated. Their ideas on the method of education are similar: for Pestalozzi, education began with the concrete, with the child's immediate surroundings; he believed that the early instruction of the child should concentrate on the senses and therefore be concerned with the mother and the heart not with the head or the reason. He expounded these ideas in what is perhaps his most notable book:

How Gertrude Teaches her Children. (trans. Holland, 1900). Rosmini went further in distinguishing the various stages of mental development, determining the knowledge suitable for each step, in the Metodica. Rosmini differed from Pestalozzi in beginning with "whole" instruction and complete objects. He also believed that education should proceed from the complex to the simple and from the whole to the parts, while Pestalozzi tried to create a unity by imparting knowledge on a number of topics which tend to end in isolated definitions. From the time of Pestalozzi, educators began to think more of the child as the centre of education, and the process of education as bound up with natural development. As he said in How Gertrude Teaches her Children: "It is all well and good for them (children) to learn something, but the really important thing is for them to be something" (Pestalozzi, in Holland, 1900, p.307).

2.22 During the first half of the nineteenth century, each European nation followed an independent line in education. Germany had made a valuable experiment in national education; and the ideas associated with Herbart and Froebel helped to make her an educational leader in Europe. Rosmini was interested in the German educators and he frequently refers to them in his letters. There is no direct reference to Herbart in Rosmini's writings, yet there is a certain similarity between their ideas on education. Both were philosophers as well as educators and both tried to develop a real science of education based on philosophy and ethics: their ideas were based on experience and observation as well as theoretical principles. The aim of education for both men, was a moral one the development of good persons, so that the education of the will was more important than the education of the intellect, and the "worth of a man consists not in what he knows, but in how he wills." (Herbart, 1908, p.127). Both insist on the unity of knowledge, but there is a fundamental difference: Herbart minimised the importance of early childhood for the formation of character because he saw the child as being incapable of real moral goodness. At the same time, he emphasised the end of education, and in this Rosmini would agree with him. He said:

2.23 For Froebel, education was his lifetime concern: he expounded his ideas in The Education of Man (1826) and later became interested in the education of young children before the usual school age. He opened his first Kindergarten in 1840, from which time he devoted himself to developing the principles and methods on which it was based. The dominant idea in his philosophy is the unity of all things in God; "It is the destiny and life work of all things to unfold their essence, hence their divine being, and therefore, the Divine Unity itself - to reveal God in their external and transient being" (Froebel, 1826, p.2).

2.24 All else follows from this belief in an inner power; education therefore is a process of development from within. Froebel believed in the divine nature of the child accompanied by a reverence for childhood. There are certain similarities between the work of Froebel and that of Rosmini. Both insisted on the study of children at pre-school stage, seeing individual children as being always in the process of development. The aim of Froebel was that man should live fully through every stage of his life, and education should not simply be to prepare for future life but to meet the needs of the child at the particular stage he has reached "to be at every stage of development wholly what that stage calls for" (Froebel, 1891, p. 191). Both insisted on the development of a strong will and attached importance to uniting objects with words, since perception, for both, was equally necessary at pre-school stage and in maturity. Rosmini, like Froebel, believed that it is the teacher's duty to study the nature and the spontaneous activity of the child; and the task of the teacher is to arouse an inner want for education: "...it is imperative that parents and teachers should be careful to render the inner life of their children as rich as possible, not so much in diversity as in inner significance and activity" (Froebel, 1905, pp.222-3).

2.25 Throughout the history of education there is an emphasis on the role of the teacher and the need for a good curriculum; at the same time there is a consistent tradition from the time of Plato, that teaching is a moral matter the ultimate aim is not knowing but being. The basic criteria must therefore be in the realms of ethical, moral, formation and pastoral care. Notable contributions have been made to this by the teaching religious orders. John Bosco (1815-1888), founder of the Salesians, deserves mention: his Il metodo preventivo(12), a pastoral document, was the outcome of being questioned about his "method" in dealing with juvenile delinquents. This document has come to be known as an educational classic in Europe, where it is studied (Marmion. 1986) although it is little known in England. Bosco held, with Plato and Aristotle. that virtue cannot be taught but must be acquired through practice, not simply by intellectual application. He showed exceptional qualities in dealing with delinquents; not only helping them morally but being instrumental in their academic success. He believed that a school society needs to teach the content of the moral law and at the same time help pupils to practise what they learn; this he said required a certain ethos. As we shall see later, Rosmini concurred with his contemporary in stressing the importance of moral formation.

2.26 Newman, another contemporary of Rosmini, believed in a "liberal" education, when the trend of the time was for a "useful" or "vocational" education. An essential similarity between Rosmini and Newman was their religious inspiration... both were men for whom all that was thought or felt could only be seen or understood in the light and love of God. Likewise both men had similar views on educational principles. Newman said that the aim of education (and he had in mind the practical end of a university course) is the training of good members of society; its art is the art of social life and its end is fitness for the world. He firmly believed that there is an education which is distinct from that which fits a person for his profession; it is an education which all should have in common. A "man" in Newman's sense is made by the acquisition of that mental formation which is the aim of a liberal education. He maintained that:

He believed that it is education which gives man a clear view of his own opinions and judgments as well as the ability to express and develop them. It also teaches him to see things as they are and to distinguish what is relevant from what is not. It prepares him to fill any position and master any subject. It shows him how to accommodate himself to others. Newman defined education as a preparation for knowledge and the imparting of that knowledge in proportion to the preparation. This, he maintained, has two simultaneous aspects, the formation of the mind and learning. He said that knowledge is something which grasps what it perceives through the senses and which cannot be learned from books only. And education implies a formation of character which becomes something individual and permanent; it is usually linked with religion and virtue. Again, these ideas will be taken up in relation to Rosmini in Chapters 3 and 4.

2.27 Finally, mention must be made of the nineteenth century French educationist, Madame Necker de Saussure. Rosmini referred to her throughout his Metodica, drawing on her observations of young children: there are several similarities between Madame de Saussure and Rosmini. In her De L'Éducation Progressive(13) she shows the importance of early childhood. Her observations and conclusions were based on a careful study of children; she pointed out the differences in the stages of growth and development among young children, suggesting that educators frequently fail in their aim by teaching more than the child is ready to learn. She held that discovery and activity should be the chief means of education emphasising that this activity and interest, learning by doing, must be the starting point for all development: "When your children have once learned to receive pleasure from their own activity, this activity may easily be directed towards such objects as will be favourable to the end you have in view" (Necker de Saussure, 1839, vol.2. Bk 3). Both de Saussure and Rosmini insisted that education must be positive from infancy and that there will be no success until the teacher is more concerned with the child than with the subject being taught. Both agree that education is essentially concerned with right affections. Rosmini in his Sull'Unità wrote that: "the end of all education is the formation of the human heart" and de Saussure insisted in De L'Éducation Progzressive, that "At every age it is on the heart alone that any salutary effect can be produced; and at this early period it is only by sympathy that we can influence the heart." Again, Rosmini stated that the aim of education is a moral one and that the unity of education is an integral part of this, while Necker de Saussure wrote: "Intellectual and moral education are closely connected and correspond in all their parts; it is in vain for the teacher to endeavour to separate them". (Necker de Saussure, 1839. Preliminary chap.). Furthermore both educationists agree that the intellect cannot be developed separately; it is dependent on the full development of the whole person. The imagination and feelings are of vital importance, for in them is the mainspring of education. It will be seen later (in chapter 3) to what extent Rosmini values these ideas.

2.28 The Second Ecumenical Council known as "Vatican Two" (1963-1965) issued some sixteen documents on a wide range of subjects, several of which contain what sound like echoes of Rosmini's views. In other words, his religious and educational philosophies contain many ideas which seem highly relevant to much of present-day discussion on ecclesiastical and educational questions. This is shown both by the fact that Rosmini's Le Cinque Piaghe (on the causes of division within the Church) finds much vindication in the Vatican Two documents on Liturgy, on The Church, on Priestly Formation and on the Laity and also by the evident correspondence between Rosmini's educational views and those contained in the Vatican Two Declaration on Christian Education(14), Gravissum Educationis , which is worth considering at this point. It opens with the following statement about the human person:

The Declaration also has something to say about the following: aims, the State, parents, teachers, society and school. It points out that education must lead people to associate with one another in order that genuine unity and peace may be promoted. The Council document endorses what Rosmini said, as will be seen in the next chapter, and in that sense is relevant to the present day debate on education.

2.29 In considering some of the educationists and philosophers who preceded Rosmini, those who share his view of education, those to whom he refers in his writings and those who seem to have influenced him, it is clear that he shares in a long tradition. At the same time it will become evident that he has a contribution to make to education as a whole and to modern philosophies in particular.

NOTES

(1). On the Republic

(2). Moral Letters

(3). On Christian Doctrine

(4). Instructing the Ignorant

(5). On the Teacher

(6). On Soul and Life

(7). Organisation of Studies

(8). Froebel's conception of the "inner" and "outer"; that growth is from within and his comparison of the teacher as a gardener; Rousseau's faith in the importance of educating according to nature; Pestalozzi's idea that teaching must be by means of objects.

(9). Door to Things

(10) Social Contract

(11). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

(12) 'The Preventive Method

(13) Progressive Education

(14). Declaration on Christian Education

REFERENCES