CHAPTER 3

ESSENTIAL PHILOSOPHICAL AND
EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF ROSMINI

INTRODUCTION

Rosmini managed to fit an enormous amount of activity into his short span of life. (he lived only to the age of fifty-eight). Apart from his voluminous writing, his studies and the direction of two religious orders, he was concerned with the many political problems which faced Italy. His biography shows his temporary practical involvement in the affairs of the papacy; and the contemporary moves towards the unification of the separate States led him to consider what sort of Constitution was desirable, as well as to examine the whole area of social justice, freedom, rights and law. He looked at such things not simply as a patriot or politician but at a deeper level in which he was guided by his whole religious and philosophical outlook.

He envisaged a unified Christian society in Italy and his thinking was based on his total vision of man in relation to God; he saw man as God's creation in the natural order, and the Christian as raised to a higher order, a supernatural order, of being - in and through Christ. Man's nature, then, is that of a creature owing love and service to his loving Father (God) - endowed with the light of reason, and therefore having something in him of the divine. But because man is prone to go astray from what God wants of him, in search of short-term, selfish gains, it is only through the action of Christ that he can rise to his true supernatural destiny.

It is only against this background that the breadth and depth of Rosmini's thought can be understood; and it was these qualities which enabled him to approach the subject of education in a way that was more searching, more comprehensive and more unified than an educationist tout court could reach. He saw (as did many leaders of countries) that the formation of the future citizens of any State is a matter of immense importance for that country's well-being, happiness and prosperity. Moreover, as a Christian priest he considered not only the material well-being but also the eternal salvation of men and women as deeply influenced by the type of upbringing they receive, both at home and in school. So many contemporary approaches to education (then as now) could be justly described as pragmatic or inadequate; and there was the danger (then as now) that the State might use the education system to promote its own ends, and use its citizens for political ends, rather than treat them as persons with divinely given and inalienable rights. Some of Rosmini's finest and most penetrating thought is devoted to the human person and to the nature of rights, the moral and civil law, as well as to the relation of the individual to society. But the basis of all this thinking he first established by philosophical thought.

Rosmini was also well versed in the literature of education. But he was not simply enunciating abstract principles, out of contact with the day to day process. He was very interested in the way in which a child develops; he corresponded frequently with a wide range of people - university professors, noblemen, and priests of his own and other orders - over the whole field of education, who consulted him because he was known to have a deep interest in education both in theory and practice.

3.1 Context of Education

Rosmini's ideas on education can only be understood in the context of his writings as a whole; it must be borne in mind that his works (see Appendix A) cover a wide range of subjects, some idea of which can be gained by taking a bird's-eye view of them. Davidson (1882) made the following divisions: Philosophy; Philosophy and the Supernatural; Philosophy of Morals and Right; Ideology and Logic; Psychology; Metaphysical Science; Education and Methodology; Political Philosophy; Ecclesiastical Prose and a section entitled Miscellaneous. It is within this range that Rosmini considered the nature and origin of ideas; the nature and working of human reason; the nature and dignity of the human person and therefore man in society and his need for education and completion.

3.2 The Human Person

In order to understand Rosmini's view of education it is necessary to look at what he had to say about the human person, his nature and destiny. Man is a spiritual as well as a physical being and there are many aspects of his nature: intelligence, feeling, instinct and will, all of which combine to make him a whole human person. The concept of person is one of the most important of Rosmini's philosophical ideas: the human person is the basis of morality, rights, politics and education. The main theme of his thought is the education of the person, by which he means the development of the capacity for moral good; and he believed that all educational theories must start from some basic philosophical assumptions about the nature and destiny of the human person who is the subject of education. His ideas on education form part of a complete view of man, his life both as an individual and in society. He based his philosophical system, as can be seen from his Nuovo Saggio, on the fact that man is capable of feeling, thinking and willing. And although he described these three aspects, which can be termed the sensitive and the intelligent, as being totally different, since they separate animal and human nature, at the same time he showed emphatically that man is an organic unity. His belief that man's position can only be explained and understood by reference to his relationship with God also has a foundation in philosophy.

3.2.1 Rosmini's thought is based on the idea that the human person is made up of feeling, intelligence and will, and that, although the child takes part in different activities, it is one person. He held that education should aim at the full development of all the powers of mind and body; at the same time, he realised that the development of one does not necessarily mean development of another. There is a need to make natural development complement the personal formation of the child by stressing the primacy of character training according to moral principles. Both nature and person must be developed; but personal fulfilment, according to Rosmini, is more important, because it is this which constitutes the perfection of man as a human being.

3.2.2 He made a distinction between nature and person. Person is the inviolable core of the human being, constituted by the relationship between the individual and the light of reason. According to Rosmini, this light of reason is given to the human individual through the innate idea of "being", (see Appendix B) which at a certain stage of development, the child expresses by the use of the word "is". "Being" is the general notion, without which particular notions cannot be understood. It is the objective light forming the intelligence and giving the human creature dignity and excellence as a person. Acting according to the dictates of this transcendental light, personal or moral integrity is affirmed and strengthened.

Nature, on the other hand, is considered by Rosmini as the sum of human capacities in limited human existence. Life itself, for instance, lies within the concept of nature. Nature can best be contrasted with the concept of person by distinguishing between that which makes a human being a good "something", a good pianist, for example, and that which makes him a good person. It is Rosmini's contention that the values of nature have to be subordinated and used relatively to the absolute, moral values of person. "Who" is infinitely more important than "what" in human affairs.

3.2.3 Natural gifts such as friendship, artistic or technical ability enhance nature; qualities such as love, truth, justice and goodness enrich the whole person. Natural gifts, however, can be used to bring the person to maturity; for example, in the area of physical education, sport and games can be used to develop the pupil's sense of justice and self-control as well as developing bodily skills. This can be of great practical importance to the teacher, in that it provides a concrete basis for integrating all aspects of educational activity. Every aspect of the curriculum can be used to develop and mould the pupil's character; and he should be encouraged at every level to value qualities such as love of family and country, loyalty, courage and a sense of responsibility. All this development, Rosmini maintained, depends on the teacher, who must have a sense of values and an awareness of the pupil so that intellectual and social development are channelled towards the formation of a strong character. And the pupil must be encouraged to hold personal qualities in high esteem. For Rosmini (and, as has been pointed out, for Newman) the important thing is the formation of the pupil as a person, not simply his training for a specific way of life. It is not so important whether he is a potential academic or a manual labourer; these are means to an end. Rosmini defined the end as that of leading a worthwhile life according to one's dignity as a human being, created by God. He emphasised the fact that because man lives in society he therefore has the duty to help that society to develop and improve. The concept of Christian love leads to this and implies that by acquiring human and natural knowledge we may be able to help our neighbour. For Rosmini then, the centrality of the human person is fundamental to his educational theory, and the educator must take into account man's psychological make-up and his relationship with God.

3.3 Aims and Purpose of Education.

In answering the question, "What is the aim of education?" Rosmini explained that the true determinants are: man's real worth as an individual, his dignity as a person and his end as a Christian. Only after this did he consider such factors as the training of good citizens, good businessmen or a preparation for a secure future. In an article written in 1835, he stated that one of the most common defects he noted in the various educational systems was that they failed to state precisely what was the aim of education. The result was that many of these systems lacked unity of purpose and method, and left pupils confused, pulled in opposite directions. The aim of education, he said, depends on the purpose of life; for the Christian, the aim of the one cannot be divorced from the aim of the other. Unity in education is part of the Christian philosophy of life; Christianity has always been concerned with man in his totality. For the Christian, God is the author of life - natural and supernatural; and Rosmini suggested that because it is possible for the human being to have a relationship with God, the achievement of this relationship becomes the principal object and the ultimate aim of education. Man was made by God and for God and the whole of education must be governed by this truth. In Sull'Unità, he stated that educationists must recognise God as Supreme and that all else is subordinate to him. The knowledge and love of God are essential; knowledge and love of things are subordinate and conditional. Education therefore embraces the completion of man and is both moral and religious; other ends such as preparing the child for a living and educating him for leisure must be subordinate to this aim. He concluded that the aim of education is a moral one and that the unity of education is an integral part of this. In a letter written in 1850 to Dom Bernard Smith (of the Irish College in Rome) Rosmini stated what he called the whole principle of the art and science of education; his definition is clear:

3.3.1 As a philosopher, Rosmini was naturally interested in the purpose of education and he wrote about this in his Sull'Unità. He believed that human beings are called to two ends; these, in fact, correspond closely with the two commandments of love - the love of God and of one's neighbour. First, man is called to the love and service of God; to complete his own nature: to grow in body and spirit - in other words to study the harmonious development of both these constituent parts until he arrives at his natural maturity and perfection. Once he has grown and developed to a certain extent (Rosmini would maintain that we are always in a state of development) he must then think of the public good; to serve society, which is his duty. He maintained that the first aim - to form man - belongs to that part of education which stretches from the earliest studies through to high school. The second aim is concerned with the period of university studies. During the first phase - the formation period consideration must be given to nature, mankind and God, and the pupil must learn about these. (These areas will be looked at later in this chapter). In the second phase - that which looks to the improvement of society, while the various branches of knowledge are helpful, the main aim should be to deepen the student's knowledge in some particular branch - to enable him to specialize. During both phases and throughout his life his spiritual development is taking place.

Rosmini understood that every individual has something in common with the rest of humanity, namely: human nature and the ends to which this is destined; national affairs and the concerns of his country; family and traditions; and finally his own individuality. These four areas of life have, in his view, given rise to four systems of education. These can be classified according to that element in man which they seek primarily to promote. Some emphasize what can be called a cosmopolitan education which aims at producing men as citizens of the world - a good aim, Rosmini suggested, but it ignores natural links - of family, nation, and with one's individual self. Others stress the love of one's own country, leaving aside all other considerations; others are deceived by the idea of family well-being and happiness; and lastly there are those who have respect neither for the human race nor for their country, nor family, but who limit education to egoism.

3.3.2 He developed this idea further and stated that it is the Christian religion, which embraces the whole of human nature, because it incorporates and cultivates those four qualities or areas of man mentioned above. He added that true education must be based on this sort of wisdom.

3.4 Unity

Unity was very important to Rosmini. In his Nuovo Saggio he concluded that the unity of the human person depended on the light of reason, that is the innate idea of being. Ideas have "being" as a common factor; an idea when brought into relation with other ideas, becomes a source of strength and power; likewise unified knowledge becomes dynamic. Unity, essential to education, is demanded by the inherent, transcendental unity of the human person whom it serves, enhances and encourages, Unity in education, for Rosmini, was essential; at the age of twenty-eight, he wrote his Sull'Unità and throughout his life continued to be interested in this, particularly when he had developed his ideas on the human person. Other references are to be found in his Antropologia, his Diritto and his Antropologia Soprannaturale(2).

3.4.1 His idea of unity embraced the whole spectrum of education, and education also involves many people: parents, teachers and administrators. It follows, that if education is to achieve its aim it must be founded on common principles which give meaning, direction and unity to these various aspects. Rosmini made an interesting comparison to emphasize the point. He said that often there is a restricted view of education which fails to grasp the totality of what is involved. This mistake is like that of those engineers who concentrate all their attention on each wheel, or spring, or link but fail to consider the overall working of the mechanism and seem to think that the bigger and more powerful the individual cogs and springs, the finer the machine, forgetting to pay attention to their interrelationship and the order of arrangement by which everything is set in motion at the same time. He went on to say that if this essential unity is absent, the individual parts, no matter how precious in themselves, are useless if they stand alone. (Rosmini, 1826).

3.4.2 Rosmini emphasized that it is a great mistake to believe that moral, physical and intellectual education are separate and independent; rather they must be integrated in a coherent way. In this sense, the various types of education, which mould the individual pupil must be seen to work together. These types are defined as follows: self-education; domestic education (that which takes place within the family); school education; civil education, society and its influence and lastly, Church education. For Rosmini, the first priority is that bodily health is cared for, that the pupil is given a solid and intellectual and cultural foundation and that his will is trained to obey his conscience. In doing this the teacher must try to unite these processes so that they serve one purpose - the moral and personal perfection of the pupil. This requires a sharing of the same vision and a dedication to achieving the same aim on the part of all staff of the school; it means a balance between the subjects taught and the text books chosen according to a concerted plan. If any one of these elements is missing, Rosmini maintained emphatically, the effect of such disunity could prove disastrous for pupils.

3.5 Christianity

Rosmini showed clearly that Christianity is the principle which gives unity to the education of human beings and said that because of this, genuine human education has spread. It is Christianity which pointed the way to, and revealed to man the ultimate reason for his existence. He pinpointed three ways in which Christianity gives this unity to education. First of all, it points the way to that ultimate end to which the human person ought to apply himself - God. Secondly, it makes education one, by the spirit it infuses into it; this requires a linking together of the various bodies of knowledge, which in turn puts soul into teaching, puts order into it, drawing together the separate parts. And thirdly, it calls into unity all the various powers within the individual pupil so that these are all ordered among themselves and work together so as to share in the overall good of the total human person. He summed up the unity of human education under three requirements: unity in its aim -which is the principle of unity and the essential character of Christian education; unity in the teachings to which the young are made to apply themselves (and this necessarily requires unity of subject matter); and unity among the powers of the pupil - all of which must work together in order to reach the end for which he is created. And this calls for unity in the method of teaching. He pointed out that it is only by considering these three aspects of unity that we are able to understand the notion of an education "worthy of people who are civilized because they are Christian" (Rosmini, 1826) and an education also capable of meeting this needs of the times. Rosmini had in mind the Italy of his day (as well as any other country with a professedly Christian government). All this, he suggested, was given to us in the simple yet sublime words which should apply to any field of human activity and be the foundation for an education which will prepare young people to live a life unified by the twofold aim contained in:

These commandments show how we should live in relation to God and our neighbour (other human beings). It can be seen, Rosmini suggested, how in this simple command of love, which forms the spirit of Christianity, are contained all types of unity which are part of the most perfect education. It also contains the aim of all knowledge and the means to that aim. And it is the whole person, with all his life, who must carry out this assignment, fulfil this law of love.

3.6 The moral aspect

We turn to what Rosmini had to say in Sull'Unità about moral education, a topic on which he differs greatly from Rousseau, as was mentioned earlier. Rosmini was convinced that too little attention was given to moral education in the stage preceding self-consciousness and conscience. He recognised a development of moral ideas as the child matures: training in moral behaviour can begin at an early age and should continue throughout the whole pre-school and infant school period. He believed that the child is a person from infancy and many character traits are formed during the first five or six years of life. The imitative tendency manifests itself at a very early age and unconscious imitation plays a large part in the formation of the child's character. He said that moral education should be directed towards educating the child through feeling rather than knowledge; by training the emotions, one indirectly forms the person. In the early years, it is important to keep the child calm and happy, surrounded by an atmosphere of love and peace. His physical needs must be attended to at the proper times and he must not be disturbed unnecessarily. Moral education must be positive and based on love. In speaking to children, he suggested, one should use words such as "good" and "beautiful", avoiding words such as "bad" and "evil", and such pejorative words should never be applied to people. Praise is more effective than blame in the formation of attitudes. The teaching of religion forms a necessary complement to moral education: he believed that young children find the notion of God both easy and natural. They not only accept the existence of God on faith but take it for granted; therefore they should learn the name of God as soon as they begin to talk.

3.6.1 A new world of human relationships is opened to the child once he begins school; he becomes a member of a group, aware of his peers. This draws from him what Rosmini called the human instincts such as the tendency to dominate others, often using them for his own advantage. Adjusting to school and to the teacher can be a major problem for him. Rosmini maintained that the teacher must be consistent, always getting the best from the child through reasoning, so that the natural peace of the child is not disturbed and he feels respected. The aesthetic dimension of moral training should begin at this stage; by regulating the child's perceptions and giving him beautiful and colourful objects his sense of beauty and order is awakened. A new landmark is reached when the child learns to talk; he begins to form abstract ideas and evaluate things around him. Instinct continues to play a large part in determining the child's activity but the will and personality also become more active as a result of the extension of his knowledge and experience. The child becomes more interested in other people; he is full of love and affection. He seems to place his pleasure and pain in objects which cause him pleasure and pain, not in himself; this objective way of looking at things is, in Rosmini's view, the beginning of morality and every means should be used to foster the child's love for other people.

3.6.2 The child is guided by his feelings and estimates things according to the impression they make on his senses; it is part of Rosmini's thesis that young children deal with things. "Experience" follows and usually involves reflection on "things". This period of early childhood is also a time of strong persuasions: the child believes what he is told, accepting with trust the statements of others. Development takes place as long as these two elements of feeling and belief do not clash; but as soon as someone tells him that something is "good" or "bad", while his senses dictate otherwise, then confusion takes over: this dilemma he must resolve for himself. If he ignores his own feelings his sense of self-confidence will be lost, thereby weakening his character. If he follows his feelings, he will gradually lose respect for authority and develop antisocial inclinations. (Grey, 1887. pp. 134-148).

3.6.3 In spite of the fact that Rosmini left one of his main works on education unfinished (his Metodica 1857), nevertheless he gives detailed directives concerning the moral education of children in the first two periods of infancy and early childhood; but the guidelines governing the primary and secondary stages are less determined and not so detailed. He spoke generally about these stages but many of his principles already mentioned, are equally valid for the two later stages. During the period from seven to fourteen, knowledge of moral obligation grows steadily and a greater freedom of action develops. The child is now capable of thinking about himself, in the sense that he sees the agent and the action as parts of the same whole. He begins to use free will when he has to make a choice between pleasure and duty, or in Rosmini's terms between subjective and objective good; the child progresses from a concrete rule of morality (the wills of his parents and teachers) to an abstract notion of law and duty which comes from more mature reflection and an increase of knowledge.

Rosmini regarded this period as a most important stage in the development of character. It is a period of high ideals, in which the child throws himself wholeheartedly into everything he does. Rosmini was anxious that the main work of moral education should, therefore, be done in the primary school, where the child will be equipped with strong moral sentiments and a high sense of duty to see him through the years of adolescence. The young adolescent should be fully aware of his personal responsibility for his moral training, In Rosmini's time, many boys (of those who attended schools) left school at the age of fourteen and therefore he was keen that they should by then have a clear knowledge of their moral obligations and be awake to their responsibilities as Christians and as members of society. He, unlike Rousseau, did not hold society and the environment responsible for all moral evil; nor did he consider the child as essentially good.

3.6.4 Moral education does not stop with merely teaching the child what moral truth is; there has to be personal acceptance of the truth. And in Rosmini's view the teacher's best means to bring this about are words and example: words which come from the heart of the teacher, showing personal concern and affection; and example, which is difficult since it requires a consistency, a living out of the truths which he puts to the pupil. The teacher must be even-tempered, reasonable and quick to understand the pupil's problems: he must be a person of integrity, speaking the truth at all times so that a certain trust is built up within the pupil. The principal aim of education is to bring the whole of life into conformity with the truth: intellect, will and body must have a common goal; namely the development of sound moral sentiments which will make good living almost instinctive. It is worth looking at what Rosmini wrote to Paolo Orsi (E.C.2771), (then Prefect of the "ginnasio" at Roverto). He answered Orsi's question on how to bring his pupils to moral goodness. He suggested that the teacher must put his trust in the power of truth and by this Rosmini means both natural and supernatural truth. He offered other guidelines (and in this he had similar ideas to Herbart): the educator must aim to instil a love of virtue both for its own sake and for its intrinsic beauty and avoid a negative or prohibitive line which only results in "college goodness"; teachers must be consistent - the whole staff forming one mind; (this important point is also made by the Jesuits in the Ratio Studiorum) and the life of the pupil must be integral - all the aspects forming al unity.

3.7 Child development and the principles of method,

The fact that Rosmini stressed the centrality of moral education does not mean that he was anti-intellectual or that he underestimated the importance of physical and aesthetic education: on the contrary, he recommended a comprehensive education, involving the development of all the human powers, and the cultivation of individual interests, all of which are orientated towards the supreme end of education. In this area of child development he had much to say about the education of the understanding. And since morality is based on values, so education must involve the intellect and the understanding at every stage.

3.7.1 Rosmini believed that the child is in a continuous state of development and this is basic to his educational thought. He emphasised the importance for the teacher of getting to know the main stages and the natural sequence of his development. In his Metodica, he stated that the only way to get this is by constant observation and experiment. It is the teacher's task to regulate the pupil's experiments and to provide him with valuable experience, suitable to his stage of development. The aim is to get the pupil to think, to use those powers of reflection which he possesses at a given time; and this must begin with perception. (See Appendix B). As soon as the pupil is able, he must focus on his perceptions, (since Rosmini maintained that reasoning must be based on perception) and perception is "placed by nature as the basis of the whole pyramid of human knowledge (and) must also constitute the foundation of all human education" (Rosmini, 1857).

3.7,2 Continuity in development led him to apply principles to education: his interest in psychology led him to conclude that there must be a stimulus for each successive stage of intellectual development, ranging from satisfaction of the needs of the very young child through to language which helps the child to articulate his thoughts and reflect on concepts. He also concluded that the reason why many children of high intellectual ability seldom develop their potential (he called this the law of Inertia in his Psicologia(3)) is that the mind remains inactive unless stimulated But once stimulation takes place, the child responds and acts.

The instinctive needs of the young child provide he stimulus at this initial stage; he does all within his power to seek satisfaction and comfort. Later he needs further stimuli in order to reach another intellectual level of communication and thinking. This stimulus is catered for by language; Rosmini discussed this at length in his Metodica and Logica. The child moves to the new world of words, to thought, through to articulation and later to concepts. All this, Rosmini maintained, depends on the teacher, who must hold the interest of the child, building on his natural curiosity and interest. lie must help the child to classify and relate his knowledge so that it becomes a unity for him.

3.7.3 In writing about the principles of method in education, Rosmini in his Metodica, explored thoroughly the way education must proceed pari passu with the pupil's intellectual and moral development. In this context, he said that there were two aspects of teaching; it is an art, in that the teacher's methods must be flexible, easily adapted to the individual pupil. It is also a science, and therefore must have a certain method. Rosmini, like most other educators, agreed that experience must be the foundation of method; he believed that the real problem lies in discovering how the pupil moves from sense perception to ideas and from the concrete to the abstract. The answer can only be reached by studying children's behaviour in the context of psychology. He pointed out that the pupil's perception has to start with individual things (see Appendix B); but because the child is prone to notice similarities rather than differences, he forms general ideas at first and only afterwards arrives at particular ones. This, Rosmini considered to be the natural bent of the human mind. For example, one would look generally at a period in history and afterwards examine the details. In all this he pointed out the importance of following the natural order of ideas or the current stage of development. This implies proceeding from what is easy to more difficult things. From this reasoning, he concluded that one thought cannot lead to another unless it has been understood. And from it he deduced what he called "the supreme principle of method": "Let the truths to be taught be arranged in such order that those which precede do not require those which follow in order to be understood." (Rosmini. 1857).

3.7.4 Rosmini was emphatic about external stimuli; if intellectual development is to take place, it must be encouraged by stimuli outside the child as well as by building on his natural bent, so that a need for knowledge is created within he child. This principle, according to Rosmini, is fundamental to education, because it is based on psychological findings. Although he drew much from Mme Necker de Saussure, he also studied the behaviour of children for himself. Some of his observations are to be found for instance in the Rinnovarmento della filosofia (cf. Vol. 1, pp.166-169. and in the Ruling Principle of Method (trans. Grey 1887 p.26 in particular.

For the teacher, this involves more than the teaching of lists of facts which have no meaning for the child; it also means building on the child's natural interest and using every cry opportunity to stimulate him to further interest. He stressed the importance of developing the various faculties within the pupil, in the order in which they appear. In following the natural course of the development of these faculties, he said the first one to be cultivated is the memory, stimulated by the study of grammar; by this he meant all that is undertaken in the elementary school; second, the imagination, stimulated by rhetoric and third, the intellect, developed by philosophy, which takes place in the Gymnasium. (The Jesuit schools still use these traditional divisions of Grammar, Rhetoric and Philosophy for the main stages of schooling). He stressed further, that the cultivation of these seemingly separate faculties is the means by which the heart of the human being - the whole person - is formed.

3.7.5 In a letter, written in 1852, to Nicolini (Professor of Latin at the College in Domodossola) Rosmini answered the question,"how does one turn all things to the cultivation of the heart?" by suggesting that all that is said and taught must be underlined by virtue so as to be worthy of love and imitation. The teacher must never appear indifferent to good or evil or suggest that there is no distinction between virtuous and evil actions. He suggested further that the teacher must always try to bring out the worth of good actions and the wickedness of evil, when dealing with specific subjects such as history and mythology, thereby forming the heart, or the balance of the affections within the young person. In this, Rosmini followed Plato and Augustine; and C.S. Lewis follows the same tradition when he points out that "the little human animal" must be trained to have the right responses.(Lewis, 1943 p. 10).

With regard to the principles of method, Rosmini, in the same letter, stated that it was important, once one adopted a certain method of teaching, to persevere with it, because it will only be effective after a long period of time; the art of teaching can only be mastered after much experience, involving observation and reflection.

3.7.6 Just as the unity of teaching consists in the harmony of the individual subjects and their being linked together with a common aim, so the oneness and entirety of the method requires the harmonising of all the human faculties in each subject so that: "...what the intellect apprehends, the heart feels and the work (what is being done) manifests it- (Rosmini 1826). With this in view Rosmini saw man as made up of three parts - the intellect, the heart and life. The intellect must find a response in the heart, from which must conic virtue, which in turn gives beauty to life. This has further requirements as far as the teacher is concerned: if the pupil's intellect is to develop, it calls for easy, clear and expressive words and ideas, and if the pupil is to assimilate the truths to be taught, then the teacher has to use a style which will make them intellectually attractive, and he must also (through a careful study of the pupil's temperament) try to make them loved. Only in this way will the truths become effective and operative in the pupil's life.

Without going into much detail, Rosmini recommended first, what he calls "abundance" in style: this is not only the opposite of the bare minimum needed simply to put an idea into words; it also includes the notion of accustoming the pupil to see an idea from all sides and be able to recognise it in any context -not merely a conventional or routine one. Secondly he recommends "amenità" - pleasingness of style - which attracts the attention of the pupil, and eases the labour of applying the mind to study. And a third quality he mentions as desirable is what he calls in Italian "tranquillità" - although the English word "tranquillity" does not translate it. He has in mind a certain ease - the opposite of a hurried, vehement style - and contends that this has the ability to enable the mind both to grasp and to appreciate the truth. The other aim mentioned above is that the teacher, by the study of the temperament of his pupil, will try to influence him not merely to know the truth but to love it and to lead a life in conformity with what has been taught.

3.8 History

In Sull'Unità, he linked these ideas with the study of man. He stated that history is the means by which the pupil is enabled to make this study; it will not be an empty exercise but will act as a means to that which (Rosmini never tired of reminding his readers), must be the end of all education - the formation of the total person. He emphasised that it was with this in view that textbooks on history should be compiled and linked with other themes; these follow in a chronological order. The first will be a compendium of universal history; the second a specific history of the nation; the third will be about the province and the fourth will contain the history of literature. He specified that the first will be useful for the Grammar stage; the second and third for Rhetoric; and the fourth for Philosophy. These studies, he suggested, fall into two parts - the means to acquiring knowledge, and knowledge itself; he then laid down specific guidelines for these areas and had much to say about language teaching, which provides the means to acquiring knowledge.

3.9 Scripture

Concerning the knowledge of God, he showed how scripture should be studied at the various stages of schooling through to university. This, he advised, should be accompanied by the use of some explanatory book, which would follow the natural order in teaching the truths to children and in helping their understanding of the Scriptures. He divided the work into six parts and specified six stages, laying down clear guidelines for each stage; these can be summarised under the following headings:

3.10 Physical Education

In nineteenth century Italy, little reference was made to physical exercise in the school setting; greater emphasis was put on the development of the mental powers. Rosmini was concerned with a balance and equilibrium between mind and body. In his view physical exercise (such as competitive sport and games) must essentially have its place in this whole. In his short work, Saggio sui divertimenti pubblici(4), (published posthumously in 1858) which was written after his first visit to Rome; (where he was impressed by statues of Greek athletes) he examined the influence of gymnastics and sport on certain civilisations, which helped to lead him to the conclusion that the body is part of the rational life of the human person and physical exercise is part of his complete and integral education. He concluded from his study of contemporary physiology that physical education is a means of maintaining a balance between the sensitive and the intellectual areas of human nature; and because the senses are at the service of thought, one can learn better if the body is in good physical condition. (Rosmini, 1858).

3.11 Textbooks

In Sull'Unità, Rosmini argued at length about the efforts which should be made to find good textbooks to serve as guides for teachers as well as pupils. He said that in order to write a book for use in all schools, great insight and wisdom are required. A concentrated essence must be drawn from the subject matter, which means the author must know his subject well; he must be able to organize it, classify it, and coordinate its various facets with accuracy.
He suggested that there should be a group or college of learned men, to whom the composition of textbooks for State schools should be given. This group should be organized and presided over by one who would direct its work (in this way giving it coherence and unity), and provide the spirit which would animate it. He had in mind a plan which would require all the subjects to be linked and organized so that they formed a unity. He put forward two propositions: first, that the school texts should, together, constitute a perfect unity, each following a part of the whole scheme. The second proposition aims at a threefold unity and this idea is closely connected with what he had to say about Christianity giving an overall unity to education - unity of purpose or aim, involving harmony between the texts; unity in the overall system, pointing to the various links in the chain; and unity of method which would be instrumental in developing and bringing to maturity the various powers within the pupil.

3.12 Parents and Education

Rosmini stated in his Diritto that parents are the natural and therefore primary educators of their children and are responsible for their physical, intellectual, moral and overall well-being. They have the right, he said in Sulla Libertà, to educate their children in the way they choose, deciding on the school in which they have most confidence. It is the custom in most civilised countries, to delegate this right to educate, to teachers who are specially trained and qualified to prepare the child to live in society. Although parents are ultimately responsible for their child's welfare, there are certain intrinsic restrictions involved: parents must respect the child as a person and therefore recognise his rights. In this sense, they cannot permit their child to be influenced adversely or led into a life of depravity. If such a danger arises, the State has the right to intervene irrespective of the parents. The same applies if it becomes obvious that the child is not receiving an adequate education. Normally there should be co-operation between the home and school and parents should be interested in what takes place in school. At the same time they should not dictate to teachers what is to be done in school or the methods to be used in the classroom. Rosmini emphasised clearly that the choice of method is the teacher's business, and no external authority can withdraw this right by dictating to him on this matter.

3.13 State and Education

It is worth looking at what Rosmini had to say about the State and education. In his Libertà, he argued that the right to teach is a natural one, not one conferred by the civil law. In Rosmini's day the question of responsibility and rights in education became an important issue. Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the State was beginning to enter into educational matters. Efforts were made generally in certain European countries to extend its authority to private schools, with the result that the Church had less control over them. Rosmini held that if the State was to be genuinely democratic and liberal and exist for the good of all, then it must act according to the principles of liberty in recognising the rights of its citizens. These include the right to teach and the rights of parents to decide on the type of school and the education they desire for their children. Rosmini agreed, at the same time, that the State has a particular interest in the education of its future citizens and can prescribe that every child should receive an education, enabling him to live and carry out his duty in society. Rosmini recognised and valued the place of education for citizenship and considered a social, national and patriotic education as an important and necessary complement of family education and life.

3.14 Summary

As has been mentioned before, in the overall course of studies, the pupil's attention is to be focused on nature, man and God. Rosmini believed that it is the task of philosophy to make sure that all the areas of human knowledge are interrelated and seen to be interdependent. Furthermore, it is in God that all these areas of knowledge ultimately come together. At the end of Sull'Unità, he summed up his main theories on education. He said that the spirit of Christianity helps us to see man in his entirety; as a consequence, all that concerns him must take place in harmony. There should be harmony between the various areas of knowledge, including the sciences - this is the guiding principle in dealing with the subjects in education - and also harmony between the faculties - which is the guiding principle of method. He went on to say that these principles should be kept in mind by Christian rulers who have been given the responsibility for their people. He said that to them are directed with confidence, the following words:

One of the factors which gives power to Rosmini's vision of education is the fact that everything he has to say forms part of the whole which is deeply grounded in both philosophy and Christian theology. And this is seen in practical details; for example, the way in which the child's mind works and therefore the method of teaching, which is also the result of his philosophical studies of the working of the human mind and the way in which it forms ideas. And there are other practical aspects. Francesco Paoli, (who was Rosmini's secretary towards the end of Rosmini's life), pointed out that many of his writings were to meet a specific need, often hastily written and never completed owing to the circumstances of his later life. Paoli also made it clear, (and actually recorded in Opere Edite e Inedite di Antonio Rosmini (Turin 1883a. p.213) that Rosmini had in mind to produce a Ratio Studiorum of his own as a guide to the teaching and organisation which would be suited to the different grades of school for which the members of the Institute of Charity (and the Sisters of Providence) were responsible: the "scuole elementari"; the "scuole ginnasiali", the "scuole liceali", and the theological schools.

All this, Rosmini saw as the whole spectrum of education; or as Paoli said: "... the whole edifice of knowledge, from the foundation to the top... the whole Christian man... with everything developing towards moral good and what is holy." (Paoli, 1883). But he never lived to realise his intention. On the other hand, there is a series of letters (printed in the volume mentioned above) in which he gives detailed guidance over method and content. Some of these letters grouped under the heading Regolamenti Scolastici(5) go into minute detail concerning what is to be done in the various grades of school, beginning with the "scuole elementari". Another practical aspect is noted in a letter (E.C.6575) which shows he was actively involved in setting up a small college to train his priests and sisters in the elementary teaching of girls and boys. The letter states that he intended establishing a similar college in England.

NOTES

(1). Letters on Pedagogy in Paoli, F. (1883)

(2). Supernatural Anthropology, (1884)

(3). Psychology, (1850)

(4). Essay on Public Amusements, (1858)

(5). School Regulations in the form of a letter of instruction to Giacomo Lugan, an
elementary schoolmaster. (8 May, 1840) in Paoli, F. (1883)

REFERENCES