CHAPTER 4 - (Part 2)

AN EXAMINATION OF CONTEMPORARY
EDUCATION IN BRITIAN TOGETHER WITH
ROSMINI'S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES

4.9 Unity

The national curriculum proposals are radical: since public education in Britain began in 1870, the concept of government dictation as to what should be taught in schools has been unthinkable. John Rae (1987), the ex-headrmaster of Westminster School, argues that there has been a change in public opinion, and gives three reasons why he thinks this is so. He says that the quality of State education has deteriorated so much that the public no longer trusts teachers to do a good job without outside direction. At the same time, even if teachers do an efficient job, the curriculum used has little to do with the world of work. And the third reason, which he says is less obvious, is the growing concern about social fragmentation. Rae suggests three "nettles" that the government must grasp: the first is those independent schools which (in his view) offer an insufficient curriculum; the second is religion - and here he says that the new Education Act offers the ideal opportunity to put responsibility for the pupils' religious training back in the family, where it belongs; and the third is the education of ethnic minorities. Rae expresses doubts whether the government will adequately tackle these matters. The second of his points (religious education) is open to the objection that, while the family certainly bears the first responsibility for such training, it is vital that the school should co-operate in it. The children's formation will suffer if the two forces pull in opposite directions.

4.9.1 Education in England is at present feeling stress and pressure from the demands for reform. By general admission it lacks unity (cf. pp.90-95), and Kenneth Baker is intent on showing to those involved in education that unity is one of his aims. But to this end he does not propose to put teachers in a straitjacket or standardise teaching methods. He asks for the national curriculum to be seen in the context of the educational proposals as a whole:

But it remains to be seen whether Kenneth Baker will define that purpose and indicate how it may be realised. Unless there is a shared unity of purpose among those who run schools there will inevitably remain disunity in the curriculum. It might be added that despite Mr Baker's diplomatic remarks about the competence of teachers, there appears to be a minority whose competence is inadequate (for instance in such areas as English and mathematics).

4.4.9 A headteacher writing to The Times (25th April, 1988) maintained that the educational system is: "so fragmented at present that no part of it is in a position to make the decision to change". And he lists areas, from curriculum matters to employment contracts, adding that : "The management of change within a school is difficult enough; within an educational system lacking any unified structure it is almost inconceivable". Perhaps the growing awareness of the lack of a unified system may form the basis of a movement towards unity.

4.10 Moral and religious aspects of the aim.

Many people are disturbed at the lack of moral sense in society in general and in young people in particular. This anxiety has been expressed in many letters to the Press, making such points as these:

4.10.1 Morality and religion as two of the interrelated aspects concerned with the aim of education (as Rosmini would see it) are very much under discussion today. Graham Leonard (Bishop of London and Chairman of the Church of England's Board of Education) published an open letter to Kenneth Baker (The Times, 2 October, 1987) accusing the Government of using the educational system as a political means to weaken local government, and condemned the motivation behind the proposals for reforming State schools as "essentially utilitarian and materialistic." And in The Times Educational Supplement (9 October 1987, he said he would have liked to see some: "reflection there of the significance and potential worth of each individual in his own right, and not just as citizen or employee." More recently, Dr. Leonard (in a speech commending the Board's report on the Bill) stated clearly that he wanted the Bill modified so that the Government's aims, which the Church shared, might be fulfilled, but without damage to the nation's schools. (The Times, 12 February, 1988).

4.10.2 The proposals for the national curriculum also received criticism from Basil Hume (Archbishop of Westminster), who said that they would reduce religious and moral education to a position of competing with other minority subjects; whereas in his view education must be: "for life, love and responsibility". (The Times, 2 October, 1987).

4.10.3 In her recent book A Common Policy for Education Mary Warnock is making a distinction between the teacher's handling of political and moral values, and she suggests that morality is simple and immediate because the child is intimately concerned with morality from the beginning. He has to learn to behave well, and she says that there is a consensus about what counts as good behaviour within the context of the school. School is the place where children "first become aware of the moral dimension of life, of the existence of other people of equal importance with themselves." She goes further in suggesting that: "a teacher who does not realise this, and who does not impose a proper respect for others here and now, is failing in his educative duty." This matter is of paramount importance, implying that if a teacher cannot make the distinction between what counts as good behaviour within the school (truthfulness, kindness, honesty and courage as opposed to dishonesty, cowardice and cruelty) he should seek a different job. (Warnock, 1988).

4.10.4 This is precisely what Rosmini said (as was seen in 3.6-3.6.4) - that more attention should be given to moral education in the early years, passing from home to school. He stressed the importance of training the feelings in a positive manner, based on love. The new world of relationships which is open once the child begins school brings out the human instincts of wanting to dominate others; in such training the teacher must be consistent, getting the best from the child and at the same time respecting him as a person (3.6.1) Rosmini suggested:

4,10.5 In a more recent article Basil Hume (1988) strongly presents the case for religious education, not as a sectarian issue but for the health of the whole society. He contends that the opening section of the Bill (already quoted) is given "no substance or meaning" in the body of the proposals; and he states emphatically that religious studies are part of the pupil's total education and should challenge the intellect. It follows that their "content and depth" call for: "rigorous planning and detailed attention to methodology and evaluation.--- He explains that religious education must form part of the core curriculum for a Catholic school, since it is tied up with the school's aims and values and so influences the curriculum as a whole, determines the pattern of school life, and is the reason for the existence of Catholic and other Christian schools. It is also, he says, the foundation of the choice made by many parents. (What he has in mind is presumably the fact that, because they want their children educated in a school with a religious ethos, many parents make considerable financial sacrifices to place their sons and daughters in independent schools, believing that these schools preserve such an ethos). He admits that he reluctantly comes to the conclusion that society "is in danger of losing its vision and its soul" because of its pursuit of technology and economic prosperity; and he is convinced: "that effective and sustained religious education is essential for the future health and stability of our society." (The Times, 13 January, 1988).

4.10.6 Precisely because many responsible people were moved to protest at the minimal place given to R.E. in the draft of the Bill, Kenneth Baker has since made significant changes in the proposed provision for the subject. During the debate at the report stage of the Bill in early April he said that he had agreed to amend the legislation to ensure that religious education would be "statutorily identified as part of the basic curriculum". What was taught would be decided locally (by the governors, in the case of a church school). It is one thing to give a proper place to R.E. in schools; it is quite another to determine what shape it should take. There is some pressure in the House of Lords for religious education to retain a Christian character (something that was unquestionably intended in the 1944 Act); but there will no doubt be opposition in some quarters to this, on the grounds that we are living in a multi-faith society. On the other hand all those who support R.E. will want to ensure that it is not watered down - as happens at present - to a "mishmash" of snippets of information about the main world religions, or (worse still) superficial generalisations about such social "issues" as homosexuality, abortion or euthanasia. (Archbishop Runcie in the Lords expressed his disquiet over much that passes for R.E. teaching.)

4.11 Summary of aspects of the aim related to Rosmini

What is happening in these various areas of education at present brings out the relevance of what Rosmini had to say about the human person (12-3.2.3), when he stresses the need for an integrated and unified education and a clarification of its aims. Rosmini believed that the remedy for many of the social, moral and political evils of his day lay in a sound Christian education. In Sull'Unità, his first work on education, he outlined the aim and content of such an education. For him education, although it has many aspects and embraces a wide variety of activities, must first and foremost be integral and coherent. (3.4-3.41). He said:

4.11.1 Bishop David Konstant, (Chairman of the Department for Christian Doctrine and Formation, Bishops' Conference of England and Wales) in an address to the School Development Committee National Conference, on The Core Curriculum (Konstant, 1987) begins by characterising the Baker proposals as radical, stating that there is much value in them. He acclaims the general principles, particularly the clear objectives for children over a full range of abilities; and the desirability of a curriculum which envisages a broad and balanced range of subjects (although these words are open to interpretation) and the need for these to be continually assessed so that they are realistic for pupil, parent, teacher, examiner and society. On the other hand he points to four flaws: the lack of a coherent philosophy; no clear definition of aims coupled with little understanding of these aims and unity of purpose; lack of provision for different needs; and the absence of moral and spiritual values. Konstant speaks from a tradition that regards the curriculum as: "all embracing ... holistic; which sees education as concerned with the development of the whole person in all aspects- intellectual, emotional, spiritual, physical; addressing itself to the totality of human experience." (Konstant, 1987).

4.11.2 The thrust of this article reiterates Rosmini's vision of education:

4.11.3 Rosmini offers some practical advice : because the teaching of religion is a necessary complement of moral education the child should be encouraged to love God, and parents have a serious responsibility not to usurp this love; they should rather encourage him to turn all his affections towards his Creator, because in loving God the child enriches his other affections. At the beginning religious training should be simple, with time given for the idea of God to develop sufficiently before embarking on new ideas about religion - because if the idea of God is well established it will provide a real basis for further religious instruction.

According to Rosmini, the teacher's main problem is the presentation of moral ideas. He suggests using a clear simple style of speaking (as seen in 3.6; 3.6.4 and 3.7.6), which will find a response in the pupil who, in the context of what was said in 3.6.3), throws himself wholeheartedly into everything he does at this stage (the period 7-14).

The following group of subsections are closely related.

4.12 Parental rights and freedom.

There has been a trend in recent years towards allowing parents much more say in the world of education (from sitting on governing bodies to exercising a choice of schools) and this is in general in line with Rosmini's views on the rights of parents (cf. Libertà). In the independent sector, parents choose a school offering the total approach to education which they consider to be right for their child; at the same time there is a dearth of schools which in practice offer the sort of ethos which many parents want for their children. There is also the danger of militant parents interfering with the legitimate rights of teachers - in the way a school is run, and the content and methods of teaching.

4.12.1 One of the more radical educational proposals of the Education Bill is to give individual schools the choice to opt out of local authority control - a proposal which has met with much discussion and protest. Even so, Baker holds "that, the opting-out proposals are seen by the Government as a central part of its drive to raise standards, giving parents more power and control over schools." (The Daily Telegraph, May 13 1988) At the North of England Education Conference on 6 January, 1988, Kenneth Baker suggested that he hoped to carry the idea of parental choice to the centre of the educational system. Real choice should not be the privilege of the rich : governors and parents would be able to run schools without depending on fees. He said: "Parents should not have to accept second best within the local authority monopoly of free education" (The Daily Telegraph, 7 January, 1988). In some cases, Kenneth Baker suggests, parents may be happy with their LEA, and the schools it provides; they may not want to exercise the choice offered: "That is their right. There is no compulsion", (The Times Educational Supplement, 9 October, 1987). It remains to be seen how this works out in practice, whether it is possible to have equal choice for all parents.

4.12.2 A sense of balance is called for concerning relationships between parents and teachers: on the one hand parents cannot be allowed to dictate to teachers what should be done, and on the other hand they have to maintain, indeed cultivate collaboration and interest for the good of their children. Where there is collaboration between parents and teachers at this level, there seem to be advantages to children's education. Tomlinson (1988) points out that parents are being asked "to adopt a significantly new and difficult role" in their relationships with teachers. Under the new proposals "they are being asked to be inquisitor and monitor of teachers and schools and to use the new complaints procedures." (Clause 15). This idea has certain implications; he says it remains to be seen whether teachers and parents will take on two roles. (Tomlinson in Haviland 1988).

4.12.3 Rosmini maintained in his Sulla Libertà, (and what he had to say is very much linked with what is being discussed at present) that in general parents have the right from nature, not through any civil law, to choose those for whom they have most respect for the purpose of educating their children. He held that this general light incorporates specific ones:

4.12.4 Rosmini also maintained that there are certain limits attached to the rights of parents (as has been mentioned earlier) : parents must respect in their children the inalienable rights which are natural to all persons - they have no right to subject their children to teaching which may pervert them, and the government has a legitimate authority if it takes upon itself these rights of children (without infringing the proper rights of parents) as pointed out in 3.12. He wrote in his Principi della Scienza Morale (1831 p, 125) that the duty of respecting the child's humanity brings with it the obligation of providing him with a suitable education, thereby enabling him to live in accordance with his human dignity. Another limit lies in the fact that "parents do not possess the right to prescribe to those whom they choose as educators of their children the methods to be used." At the same time it is "fair that teachers should take into consideration the views of parents and work in harmony with them." (Rosmini, 1854).

4.13 There is a good deal of overlap within the topics covered in the following sections and this will call for cross-reference.

4.14 Competence of Teachers

Kenneth Baker highlighted some inadequacies within the teaching profession when he spoke to the North of England Education Conference (cf. pp.91-92). Defending his Education Bill, which he said had been misunderstood and misrepresented, he criticised "the second-rate schools" and the lack of "clear learning objectives". He said that there are too many schools in which teachers fail their pupils and have "low expectations" of them. Mr. Baker is faced with a situation where there are considerable misgivings over

(a) the competence and qualifications of many teachers, especially in subject areas such as mathematics, English and science - the very core of the national curriculum;

(b) the militant actions of teachers seeking more money, which have alienated much esteem and support;

(c) the wide spectrum of outlooks among teachers (some with political aims in view, comparatively few with any orthodox deeply-held religious or philosophical commitment), which makes a unified concept of education very difficult to attain.

All this raises the question of teacher-training. Sir John Kinsman, for instance, commenting on the inadequacy of English teaching, said: "We take a dim view of the state of teacher training", and called for a shake-up of initial and in-service training, and for a re-design of English courses to include more linguistics. (Times Educational Supplement, 6 May 1988). Cardinal Hume voiced a general opinion when he said that he would like to see a far greater emphasis on "producing, supporting and enabling more excellent teachers." (The Times, 13 January 1988). And Mary Warnock, in answer to the question posed earlier (on how to provide committed teachers - cf. p.94), suggested that there must be:

4.14.1 According to Sheila Brown (former senior HMI), teachers are coping with an enormous amount of change very successfully, in spite of the fact that the Baker Bill was launched too quickly. She said: "lnevitably the success or failure of Mr. Baker's Bill - both the letter and the new law - and the wider objectives he envisages for it as a catalyst for change, depend crucially on the profession." (The Guardian, 19 April 1988). There is therefore a wide concern for more competent teachers and for a revision of teacher-training. A recent article in The Times Educational Supplement (27 May 1988) states that Kenneth Baker is in the process of putting forward plans for "non-standard routes to qualified-teacher-status'', with the aim of combating the shortage of teachers in some subjects. Two of his proposals concern "enhancing the quality" of the profession and a "reduction in administrative complexity" - ideas which correspond with those of Rosmini, as will be seen in what follows.

4.14.2 The concern which Rosmini felt over the provision of competent teachers underlies much that he says about education (as can be seen from the previous chapter). He stated that teaching is both an art and a science; that the teacher's methods must be flexible, adapted to the individual pupil: he stresses the need for patience, for observation and reflection. The teacher's competence is shown in his attention to and awareness of his pupils; he must also make clear his sense of values, and never appear indifferent to good and evil - an idea which finds an echo in Warnock where she states that there can be "no case for a morally neutral teacher." (Warnock, 1988).

4.14.3 The importance which Rosmini attached to the quality of teachers is strongly brought out in one of the letters to do with education which Paoli collected in 1883 under the title "Lettere Pedagogiche". Writing to a university professor in 1850, Rosmini said: "Give me good teachers, and even a school which is not very well planned will be good; but even if the school and curriculum are marvellously arranged, no good fruit will result if the teachers are incompetent and badly- trained." (E.C. 6511). Rosmini required of the teacher a knowledge of child psychology, a reasonable and even-tempered approach, giving praise whenever possible; the pupil's intellectual and social development were to be channelled towards the formation of character; the teacher had to cultivate the memory, imagination and intellect of the child in relation to the different stages of development.

4.14.4 So concerned was Rosmini with the requirements of elementary-school teaching that he planned to set up within his Institute a special training college devoted to this. His high view of the teaching vocation comes out in the Istruzioni a Giacomo Lugan of 8 May 1840, in which he stresses the importance of the demeanour of the teacher (cf. 4.14.3 above) and his approach to the child.

4.14.5 Rosmini was critical over the State's methods of selecting teachers, and did not consider that these led to the recruitment of the best. Too many in the profession (in his view) were just "doing a job"; those who lacked interest in their work were hard to remove; and teacher-training courses put too much emphasis on theory and not enough on developing the personality and disposition of the teacher. For him, systems and organisation were always secondary to personal qualities.

4.15 Freedom in Teaching.

The government of course legitimately lays down certain qualifications for those who wish to teach in State schools - a principle which Rosmini accepted, provided that these requirements were not unduly onerous. At present there is a grave shortage of teachers in certain subjects - notably science and mathematics - as well as a drop in the numbers in those applying for teacher-training, and a large number of people leaving the teaching profession. There are moves at present to re-think teacher-training programmes in this country (possibly with a view to increasing the teacher force), but nothing has as yet been published concerning this. On the other hand, the present government has indicated that it will be flexible over the idea of allowing retired business executives to teach in schools, and to this end is willing to ease the formal requirements. (cf. 4.15.2). It remains to be seen whether a later administration will show this freedom of approach.

4.15.1 The whole question of State control over education gave rise to much controversy in Rosmini's day, and it is still a vital and much-disputed area at present. In his Sulla Libertà Rosmini claimed that the right to teach is a natural one and prior to civil law. He said that those governments which set up a State system of education have three duties in relation to "i dotti" - those who possess the necessary knowledge to engage in teaching: to put no obstacle in the way of their right to teach; to leave them free to use whatever methods they deem best; to choose as teachers the most worthy and best instructed people they can find and to do this impartially.

4.15.2 In regard to the first of these three duties, Rosmini contended that the nature of the tests imposed on intending teachers by some governments was such that, while the examinations did exclude many of the incompetent, they also kept out some "natural" teachers. This applied particularly to people who had spent many years in other professions or in industry, who could bring a wealth of knowledge and experience to the teaching profession. (Rosmini in Paoli, 1883). Interestingly enough, this idea seems to have re-emerged today (as was mentioned in 4.15). An article by Nicholas Wood, Political Correspondent of The Times, (1 May 1988) stated that Ministers believe that "teaching will soon require an urgent infusion of new blood if schools are to meet the challenge of the national curriculum." The article went on to explain that under the new scheme recruits from industry and commerce would learn their new profession "on the job" after passing an initial test of their aptitude and ability for a second career in the classroom. The absence of excessive red tape in this arrangement would have pleased Rosmini.

4.15.3 Over freedom of teaching methods, Rosmini believed that any civil government which imposes one set method on all teachers not only violates the natural right to teach but also show itself to be illiberal and an enemy of progress. If teachers are forced to work within such a strait-jacket various ill-effects follow: the teacher will be judged not by how well he teaches but by the extent to which he adheres to the prescribed method (and he may be reprimanded for any lapse). Innovations and fresh approaches will be stifled. Moreover many excellent minds will stay well clear of a profession which makes such demands; while others who are financially more pressed will be forced to demean themselves. (Rosmini, 1854).

4.15.4 Rosmini laid down certain conditions which in his view must be met if governments, while carrying out their duty to appoint the best available teachers, are at the same time to act wisely and justly:

He believed that if the government were to abandon its deterrent methods it would be able to attract many good teachers from private education into the State schools.

4.15.5 To sum up, Rosmini supported the idea of allowing freedom to all those qualified to teach, without imposing over-restrictive conditions on them. It may be that the rethinking which is going on in this country over teacher-training will incorporate some of the ideas which he put forward.

4.16 The need for flexibility of method.

Clause 4 of the National Curriculum states that there are attainment targets, programmes of study and assessment arrangements, in relation to each of the foundation subjects, which may be specified by the Secretary of State. Although some will see this as acceptable, others will take the view that such prescriptions will leave little scope for flexibility in teaching methods. In addition there are criticisms levelled against lack of provision for individual children (made by Bishop David Konstant) and lack of effective means for implementation (made by Cardinal Hume) which also have a bearing on flexibility of method.

4.16.1 David Hart, (General Secretary, National Association of Headteachers) has emphasized this lack of flexibility over the past years. In speaking for the association he stated that the national curriculum, accompanied by national tests would put schools in "a centralized strait-jacket". (The Times, 28 August 1987) And more recently he said that some headteachers who are opposed to the Government's education reforms plan to take early retirement rather than help implement the changes. This points to the pressures which accompany the implementation of the Bill. (The Times, 21 March 1988). In addition, Keith Joseph argued in the House of Lords that the national curriculum would place straitjackets on schools and teachers. (The Times, 4 May 1988).

4.16.2 The present dissatisfaction among employers suggests that there must be something wrong with the whole approach and methods of teachers to certain subjects. A particular example is the subject of English - judging from the standards of performance found among school-leavers. At the same time it is worth remembering Rosmini's insistence on the need to allow scope for experimentation and the development of new methods as well as his opposition to the idea of expecting all teachers to use exactly the same method.

4.16.3 In his Metodica , Rosmini said that there were two aspects of teaching; it is both an art and a science, calling respectively for flexibility and method. Underlying these ideas is the urgent need for the teacher to get to know the main stages and the natural sequence of child development as outlined in 3.18 3.19. Instruction therefore will follow the child's bent, first in forming general ideas, and after reflection beginning to see the finer distinctions. In practice, this means that knowledge (the truth) should be presented to the child in such a way that every new idea is built on another already assimilated by the mind. In a subject such as mathematics, this is relatively easy because there has to be logical order; in other subjects it is more difficult to determine the proper psychological order (the child may learn mere words, but because he is capable of pronouncing a word it does not necessarily mean that he has grasped its full meaning). This calls for flexibility of method on the part of the teacher, who must prepare his work thoroughly and must order his own ideas according to the psychological laws governing the child's learning ability. Failure to do this is common both in teachers and in textbooks. Rather than taking things in the order in which he sees them at present - the logical order - he must analyze his own knowledge, decide in which psychological order its component parts need to be arranged, and then present these ideas to the child in language which is easy to understand but at the same time precise and convincing, (as was discussed in 3.7.6)

4.16.4 Rosmini also gave guidelines on other aspects of teaching methods. Individual children need time to assimilate new ideas; and this implies that the teacher must find ways of discovering to what extent the children have grasped these - by framing questions in a way that calls forth what has been learned. Children may need to be shown various different aspects of a subject; they need to be actively involved in problem solving. And this requires flexibility on the part of the teacher, who has to be aware of the pitfalls at both extremes: first of "spoonfeeding" the child, who therefore does not make any effort; and second of not giving sufficient guidance, which causes confusion and discouragement. In all this of course the teacher has the important task of presenting knowledge (of his particular subject) in such a way that it is not seen as an isolated compartment, but is related to other subjects. Just as the oneness and entirety of the method requires the harmonizing of all the human faculties in each subject so that: "...what the intellect apprehends, the heart feels and the work (what is being done) manifests it" (Rosmini, 1826), so the unity of teaching consists in the harmony of the individual subjects and their being linked together with a common aim.

4.16,5 In Sulla Libertà Rosmini stated that: "Teaching methods can only be improved as the result of free, careful and unhindered experiment concerning different ways of communicating knowledge". (Rosmini, 1854) He pointed out the fact that different minds and different temperaments respond to different approaches, and also that experienced teachers use different methods. Furthermore, any government which fails to see that a method which works well in the hands of one is less effective in the hands of another can hardly be trusted to have the wisdom to fix on a method which is good in itself, even if it is not the best for all teachers..

4.17 Textbooks

Related to methods of teaching is the question of textbooks. Rosmini maintained that textbooks should be of the highest possible standard - written by experts, and helping to integrate the various subjects into a unified vision. To attain these aims he believed that the State should take responsibility for overseeing the composition of textbooks. This was partly in response to the fact that in his day many of the books used in schools were of poor quality. It could well be asked if the same is not true today. It is against the tradition of this country for the government to exert any control over textbooks, and Mr. Baker has declared that there is no place for government-prescribed textbooks in his proposals. (The Times, 19th April 1988).

But it might be questioned whether his aims can be achieved if the unlimited free-for-all over textbooks is allowed to continue. Fashion, and commercial profit by authors and publishers are not perhaps the best criteria of the educational worth of the books that are produced. Although the idea of prescribing textbooks, even on the basis of allowing choice from an approved list, is likely to arouse revolt among teachers it does seem doubtful whether the reforms which Baker wants to see (and in this he has a great deal of support from all those who are unhappy about the present state of education in the country) can take place if complete freedom is allowed to teachers to follow their own personal choice. Basil Hume's remark about "enabling and supporting more excellent teachers", as well as the consistent practice of many countries (Japan for instance), seems to suggest that the country will not get what it wants taught unless it ensures that the books used in schools contain this.

4. 18 Two examples of subjects about which Rosmini was concerned are history and PE., and such topics are under discussion at the time of writing.

4.19 History

Rosmini believed that it is by means of history that pupils are enabled to make a study of mankind; and (as was pointed out in Chapter 3) he had definite ideas as to how textbooks on the subject should be compiled. Today there is much discussion about history and its place in schools. There used to be a general consensus that the study of history was a necessary preparation for life in general, and for those taking part in State life in particular. The British Historical Review stated in its first issue (1886) that: "...history is the central subject among human studies, capable of illuminating and enriching the rest."

And Ian Bradley echoes Rosmini when he says that history is: "a liberal and humane discipline, its subject-matter human beings with all their frailties, their idiosyncracies and their infinite interest and variety." (Bradley, 1986).

4.19.1 Paul Johnson contends in an article to The Times (26 April, 1987) that there is clear evidence that the teaching of history in all areas of education is in decline. He refers to an article by David Cannandine in The Times Literary Supplement on British history studies in universities, in which Cannandine points out that many children learn practically no history in school, and that even if they specialize, their knowledge of the distant past is only partial. Paul Johnson (in the article already mentioned) believes that government policy is not enough and that a change of attitude, especially among academics, towards the teaching of history and particularly towards the writing of history is necessary if that "great lamp of humanity" is to have its place "in our common stock of knowledge".

4.19.2 Others have expressed their disquiet over the state of history teaching: the Historical Association drew attention to the fact that: "without history, we and our society would lose our sense of identity." (The Times, 16th July, 1987). At a conference organised by the Institute of Contemporary British History (reported in the Times Educational Supplement, 2 October, 1987) it was contended that history is taken by only three per cent of pupils in this country. Anthony Seldon, the Director of the Institute, stated that there must be something wrong with a nation's education system when it turns out young men and women lacking a rudimentary knowledge of the nation's past. The same article maintained that many teachers neglect recent history because of poor resources, a lack of good textbooks, and the demands of General Certificate of Secondary Education.

4.19.3 Clearly it is difficult to generalize about what history is taught in schools today, as the situation varies widely from school to school, according to the make-up of the curriculum and perhaps the enthusiasm and competence of the history staff. Also the whole span of history is much too vast for any school syllabus to aim to cover it all. There is some evidence of a tendency to teach recent history; but it could be contended (and Rosmini would agree) that it is very important for people to have some understanding of the development of Europe from the 17th century onwards. Rosmini's specific views on the reaching of history come out clearly in Sull'Unità. He firmly believed that its importance lay in its ability to convey to the young a knowledge of the ways of mankind, and so to help to form the human person. In this sense, history is not merely another subject to learn, but helps to give a vision of life in its actuality, and of the part played by one's own nation.

History textbooks, he believed, must be written with this end in view, and their contents had to be related to other areas of study. (Cf. the broad outline given in 3.2) In Sull'Unità (p.91 and ff.) he elaborates this idea in some detail, and also calls for textbooks to be written in a clear, simple style. He starts with a broad view of the whole of history, divided into its main periods, and related to the development of Christianity, and coming down to a more detailed study of one's own nation's history (and even what we should call social and local history). He links all this with chronology, geography and the history of philosophy.

4.20 Physical Education.

There has been considerable discussion over the place of P.E. in schools. A report on the situation entitled My Favourite Subject was published on 11 January 1988 by a working party with Peter McIntosh (former professor of P.E.) as chairman. The report was summarised in The Times, (12 January 1988) and stated that there seemed to be a lack of interest in the subject among the education authorities, and that standards in schools needed to be raised. It called for a change in attitude and maintained that P.E. ought to be given a place of esteem parallel with academic achievement. Finally, the McIntosh Report stated:

4.20.1 Rosmini emphasized in a general way the need for physical education. The point was made in 3.10 that he concluded from his study of contemporary physiology that physical education is a means of keeping the balance between body and mind. In his writings on anthropology and psychology he was concerned with making the body the instrument and servant of the mind and will. He did not consider physical education as an end in itself. Two extremes, he thought, were to be avoided: excessive dedication to bodily exercise or games, which reduces the proper control of mind over matter; and disregard of the physical aspect of education, which on the other hand, hinders clear thinking. Rosmini saw the competitive element in this context as a means of teaching those values which contribute to the development of the person: co-operation in belonging to a team, and learning how to cope with success and failure. (Rosmini, 1858).

4.22 The Hidden Curriculum

As well as the formal curriculum which goes to make up the bulk of the timetable, there is the informal and hidden aspect which constitutes the personal curriculum of each pupil - all that takes place in school time but outside formal lessons. Awareness of such responsibilities demands much more of the teacher than simply "doing a job - as pointed out by Kenneth Baker (4.14). It calls for the best teachers, as Rosmini emphasized (4.14.2), who are totally committed to teaching. And this involves competence and readiness in adapting to the needs of individual pupils as well as flexibility in using an appropriate method of teaching.

If it means educating the complete person it calls for an individual approach (4.16.3) incorporating knowledge of child development, so that in Rosmini's words the individual child is given a stimulus for each successive stage of intellectual development, ranging from satisfaction of the needs of the very young child through to language and the formation of concepts, (3.7-3.72 -ideas which are dealt with at length in his Metodica), coupled with an understanding of how to use all aspects of the curriculum in developing and moulding the pupil's character, which means encouraging him at every level to value qualities such as love of family, loyalty to country and a sense of responsibility, as stressed in 3.2.3. In this way the pupil is allowed to grow and develop into an integrated human person - the sort of person Rosmini envisaged in 3.2-3.2.3.

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